B   H   Sn   nM 


UNIVEk.-iiV   <■         !    X  s.-xi.vANlA 


THE  STATUS  OF  COUNTY 

TEACHERS'  INSTITUTES 

IN  PENNSYLVANIA 


BY 
CARMON  ROSS 


A  THESIS 

RESENTED  TO  THE  FACULTY  OF  THE  GRADUATE  SCHOOL  IN  PARTIAL 

FULFILLMENT  OF  THE  REQUIREMENTS  FOR  THE  DEGREE  OF 

nof  TOP  OF  PHILOSOPHY  IN  EDUCATION 


PHILADELPHIA,  PA 
1922 


UNIVERSITY  OF  PENNSYLVANIA 


THE  STATUS  OF  COUNTY 

TEACHERS'  INSTITUTES 

IN  PENNSYLVANIA 


BY  \ 

:armon^oss 


A  THESIS 

preseiJteiT  to  the  faculty  of  the  graduate  school  in  partial 

fulfillment  of  the  requirements  for  the  degree  of 

doctor  of  philosophy  in  education 


run  ADEI.PHIA,  PA. 
1922 


^' 


t^      ,\ 


;V 


\^ 


L\ 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

The  writer  takes  this  opportunity  of  publicly  expressing  his 
appreciation  for  the  generous  and  professional  encouragement  given 
him  in  carrying  on  this  investigation  by  the  county  superintendents 
in  Pennsylvania,  by  the  thousands  of  teachers  answering  the  several 
questionnaires,  by  the  principals  and  superintendents  in  their  ready 
responses,  and  to  the  Department  of  Public  Instruction  of  Pennsyl- 
vania for  the  access  given  to  data  unavailable  in  printed  form  at  the 
time  of  writing.  Thanks  are  due  the  many  busy  professional  men 
and  women  who  have  given  their  judgment  and  experiences  concern- 
ing the  problem  studied.  To  all  these  and  to  others  who  have 
in  any  way  contributed  to  this  study,  the  writer  is  deeply  indebted 
and  gladly  expresses  his  thanks. 


CONTENTS 

Introduction — Purpose  and  Method  of  Study VI 

Chapters 

I.     Historical  Origins  of  Teachers'  Institutes 1 

II.     Aims,  Purposes,  and  Ideals  of  Teachers'  Institutes 21 

III.  Status  of  the  Organization  of  Teachers'  Institutes 43 

IV.  Statusof  the  Institute  Program  and  Personnel 76 

V.     a.  The  County  Teachers'  Institute  as  an  Agency  in  the 

Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service ^H 

b.  As  an  Agency  in  its  Intluence  on  the  Public 113 

VI.     Status  of  its  Finances 1 1*^ 

VII.     General  Status  of  Institutes  in  the  U.  S 135 

VIII.     Summary: 

a.  Findings l**^ 

b.  What  Shall  be  Done? ^^-^ 


BlBLIOGR.\PnV 


160 


Appendix: 

a.  Questionnaire  to  County  Superintendents 161 

b.  Questionnaire  to  Teachers 164 

c.  Questionnaire  to  Dist.  Supts.  and  Supervising  Principals  165 

d.  Inquiry  to  Departments  of  Public  Instruction 166 

e.  Inquiry  to  prominent  educators 167 

f.  Follow-up  inquiry  to  teachers 167 


INTRODUCTION 

The  present  study  is  an  attempt  to  determine  the  efficiency  of 
County  Teachers'  Institutes  in  Pennsylvania.  That  there  is  a  need 
for  determining  whether  or  not  the  county  institute  is  functioning  or 
whether  it  is  contributing  materially  to  the  actual  improvement  and 
present  needs  of  the  teaching  profession  in  Pennsylvania,  can  be 
readily  ascertained  by  an  examination  of  the  literature  bearing  on 
Institutes,  not  only  in  Pennsylvania  but  thruout  the  United  States. 
It  is  be>ond  the  purpose  of  this  investigation  to  review  this  literature 
or  to  quote  from  it  to  any  greater  e.xtent  than  will  shed  light  on  our 
prol)lem. 

Two  outstanding  studies  on  "Teachers  Institutes"  are  those 
by  Smart  in  1885,^  and  by  Ruediger  in  191 1.'^  These  are  both  national 
in  scope.  The  former  is  a  valuable  collection  of  data  and  judgment 
that  constitute  a  veritable  brief  for  the  institute.  The  latter  study 
considers  the  institute  as  an  agency  in  the  improvement  of  teachers 
in  service.  It  was  in  this  study  that  the  further  value  of  institutes 
was  begun  to  be  questioned,  tho  even  in  Smart's  "Circular  of  Infor- 
mation"' we  see  striking  evidences  of  warning  and  doubt.  Com- 
missioner of  Education  Eaton  in  submitting  Smart's  comprehensive 
survey  used  this  significant  sentence: 

The  aims,  purjwscs,  and  methods  of  conducting  these  institutes  in  the  several 
states  are  exceedingly  diverse.  It  is  evident  that  the  institutes  as  a  whole  have  been  a 
means  of  great  good  and  have  probably  been  worth  all  they  have  cost;  but  it  is  also 
clear  that,  from  lack  of  thorough  organization  and  professional  management,  they 
have  produced  only  a  part  of  the  good  results  possible.  The  facts  presented  in  this 
report  show  that  institutes  may  not  only  be  valueless  practically,  but  a  positive 
source  of  mischief  to  the  teachers  and  to  the  schools.* 

A  quotation  from  Ruediger's  study^  shows  further  evidence  of  doubt 
as  to  the  elTicacy  of  the  institutes.  After  giving  several  criticisms 
of  the  institute,  Ruediger  comments  as  follows: 

'  Smart,  Circular  of  Information  \o.  2 — 1885,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education. 
'  .\gencies  for  the  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Serx'ice — Ruediger,  Bulletin  No. 
3 — 1911,  U.  S.  Hureau  of  Education. 
'  Smart — op.  cit. 

*  Commissioner  of  Exlucation — Report  1885. 

*  Ruediger — op.  cit. 

VII 


VIII  COUNTY  TEACHERS    INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 

If  these  arraignments  of  institutes  were  isolated  examples,  they  might  be  passed 
by  unnoticed,  but  of  late  years  expressions  of  a  similar  nature  have  become  sufi&ciently 
frequent  to  arrest  attention.  The  feeling  is  beginning  to  spread  that  institutes  have 
served  their  usefulness  and  should  be  discontinued. 

It  is  no  doubt  true  that  institutes,  as  they  are  still  usuaU}^  conducted,  are  an 
anachronism.  They  arose  in  the  second  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century,  before 
the  normal  schools  had  made  such  headway  and  when  summer  schools  for  teachers 
were  unknown,  to  supply  a  distinct  need  in  the  training  of  teachers. 

One  of  the  severest  of  the  critics  of  the  institute  is  Dr.  Homer 
H.  Seerley,  of  the  State  Normal  School,  Cedar  Falls,  Iowa,  who  has 
arraigned  the  "institute  system"  as  a  "makeshift,"  and  "not  original- 
ly intended  to  be  a  permanent  part  of  the  educational  system  of  any 
state.  .  .  .  The  actual  results  claimed  for  teachers'  institutes  are 
usually  greatly  overestimated  by  those  who  conduct  them.  .  .  . 
They  have  no  way  to  determine  the  facts,  or  to  summarize  the 
opinion  of  teachers,  and  the  estimates  they  make  are  more  or  less 
visionary  and  unreliable.  .  .  .  The  practical  value  of  this  system 
of  work,  is,  therefore,  much  in  doubt  to  candid  observers.  The 
expense  of  the  method  is  serious  when  .  .  .  the  impossibility  of 
accomplishing  the  purpose  planned  (is)  considered. "^"^ 

In  Monroe's  "Cyclopedia  of  Education"  we  find  this  comment 
apropos  of  the  growing  questioning  of  the  institute's  efficiency: 

The  system  of  institutes  has  been  severely  criticized  M'ithin  recent  years.  The 
chief  objection  is  that  it  is  an  anachronism.  It  had  a  place  when  there  were  no  facili- 
ties for  the  training  of  teachers.  But  since  the  establishment  of  normal  and  summer 
schools  it  merely  connives  at  inadequately  trained  teachers  in  attempting  to  do 
training  work  for  about  five  days  in  a  year.* 
\ 
Button  and  Snedden^  thus  comment: 

The  conspicuous  defects  of  the  institute  are  its  failure  to  improve  general  culture 
appreciably  or  significantly  to  affect  special  scholastic  attainments  in  the  fields  in 
which  the  teachers  work.  To  a  great  extent,  also,  the  average  institute  fails  in  the 
matter  of  method,  both  general  and  special,  since  the  instructors  are  not  sufficiently 
close  to  the  problems  with  which  the  teachers  deal,  and  there  is  small  opportunity 
for  demonstration. — The  consequences  are  that  many  of  their  attempts  at  inculcating 
principles  fail  because  they  are  unable  to  take  into  account  the  conditions  under 
which  rural  teachers  work — and  these  constitute  one-half  the  teachers  of  the  country. 

'*  Seerley,  "Practical  Value  of  the  Institute  System,"  "Educational  Review," 
Nov.  1908,  pp.  356-73. 

*  Monroe,  "Cyclopedia  of  Education,"  Vol.  2,  pp.  467-69. 

'  Button  and  Snedden,  "Administration  of  Public  Education  in  the  U.  S.,"  Rev. 
Ed.  pp.  277-84. 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  IX 

Continuing  the  same  authorities  say: 

The  institute  seems  to  have  an  established  place  so  long  as  the  conditions  which 
now  prevail  in  the  teaching  force — lack  of  training,  lack  of  maturity,  and  extreme 
mobility  on  the  part  of  many  teachers — shall  continue.  Therefore,  the  problem  of 
improving  it  is  a  I'ilal  one. 

A  recent  writer  has  thus  stated  his  \iew  of  the  institute: 

The  the  usefulness  of  teachers'  institutes  is  now  largely  a  thing  of  the  past  because 
of  their  utter  inadequacy  under  present  conditions,  they  were  a  nourishing  half-loaf  in 
those  early  days  when  othenvise  there  would  ha\  c  been  no  pedagogical  bread.* 

This  view  probably  summarizes  the  attitude  of  our  most  recent 
educational  writers. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  this  inquiry  pertains  mainly  to  Pennsyl- 
vania institutes,  the  defence  on  which  our  county  institutes  are 
placed,  is  admirably  illustrated  by  a  few  excerpts  from  city  and  dis- 
trict superintendents  in  the  state.    A  few  of  these  arc:" 

Institutes  as  now  conducted  in  our  counties  are  a  farce — oriental,  dead,  lack 
definiteness,  are  a  conglomeration  of  nothingness. 

They  have  outlived  their  original  purpose.  The  rcfonncr  is  needed.  I  believe 
visits  to  good  schools  would  be  of  more  profit  to  the  teachers. 

The  practical  value  of  these  meetings  as  at  present  constituted,  is  almost  negh- 
gible. 

This  whole  thing  of  institutes  has  grown  so  disgusting  to  mc  so  far  as  results  are 
concerned  that  I  cannot  see  any  reason  for  perjietuating  this  parasite  upon  the  pro- 
fession. 

I  don't  think  there  is  any  aim  or  purpose  except  a  blind,  antiquated  fulfilling  of  a 
section  of  the  school  code. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  jirotagonist  of  the  Institutes  beginning 
with  Barnard  and  Mann,  are  legion.  As  far  back  as  1852  Barnard 
said:'" 

The  value  of  this  class  of  meetings — the  institute — both  to  teachers  and  the 
communities  where  they  arc  held,  is  universally  acknowledged,  and  not  an  intimation 
has  reached  me  from  any  cjuarter,  that  they  should  be  abandonctl.     (This  was  1.? 

•  Ross  L.  Finney,  "The  American  Public  School,"  1921,  p.  123. 

•  Selected  from  replies  to  questionnaire  to  County  and  District  Superintendents, 
q.  v.  in  Appendix. 

'*  Barnard,  ".\mcrican  Journal  of  Education,"  7th  Annual  Report,  p.  314. 


X  COUNTY  TEACHERS    INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 

years  after  inaugurating  an  institute  in  Conn,  and  6  years  after  the  first  teachers' 
meeting  under  the  name  "Institute"  in  New  York.) 

As  will  be  seen  in  Chapter  I,  "Historical  Origins  of  Institutes,"  with- 
out exception  educational  writers  and  authorities  were  a  unit  in 
their  advocacy  of  the  Institute  as  a  means  to  improve  teachers  and 
to  stimulate  an  apathetic  public.  Without  exception,  all  the  state 
superintendents  of  public  instruction  in  Pennsylvania  from  A.  G. 
Curtin,  thru  Hickock,  Wickersham,  Higbee,  and  Schaeffer  were 
firm  believers  in  the  Institute.    Supt.  Curtin  said  in  1856: 

The  scarcity  of  competent  teachers  is  the  great  want  of  our  schools.  The  Teachers' 
Institute,  recognized  by  public  authority,  and  encouraged  by  a  small  appropriation 
for  each  county,  is  beyond  all  question,  the  means  to  be  relied  on  for  this  purf)ose 
(training  of  teachers),  and  is  accordingly  unhesitatingly  and  earnestly  recommended." 

In  1857  Supt.  Curtin  again  said: 

The  County  Institute,  properly  conducted,  is  undeniably  the  great  lever  in  the 
hands  of  the  county  superintendent  to  lift  the  school  system  from  the  dead  level 
of  apathy  and  indifference;  the  most  effective  and  powerful  agency  at  his  command  to 
reach  and  arouse  public  opinion,  vivify  the  profession,  and  energize  the  administration 
of  the  system.'^  • 

Supt.  Hickock  eloquently  voiced  his  belief  in  the  County  Institute 
when  in  his  annual  report  he  said  in  part: 

The  value  of  the  institute  as  provisional  schools  for  instruction  in  the  theory  and 
practice  of  teaching,  for  the  interchange  of  teachers'  opinions  and  experiences,  and  in 
the  cultivation  of  a  fraternal  esprit  de  corps  that  should  inspire  and  elevate  the  pro- 
fession, has  been  heretofore  presented  in  conclusive  terms,  which  experience  has 
abundantly  confirmed.^' 

Thirty-one  years  after  Institutes  had  been  legalized  in  Pennsylvania, 
Dr.  Higbee,  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  said  in  his 
annual  report: 

Our  county  institutes,  as  partial  aids  to  our  Nonnal  Schools,  have  been  doing 
excellent  service  in  promoting  the  professional  knowledge  and  zeal  of  teachers.  In 
no  other  state  of  the  Union,  perhaps,  have  county  institutes  awakened  such  general 
and  sympathetic  interest  in  educational  matters.'** 

"  Curtin,  Report  of  Department  of  Public  Instruction,  1856,  p.  14. 
*^  Curtin,  Report  of  Department  of  Public  Instruction,  1857,  p.  24. 
''  Hickock,  Report  of  Department  of  Public  Instruction,  1858,  pp.  13-14. 
"  State  Report,  1881. 


COUNTY  TEACHERS    INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  XI 

Both  Smart'^  and  Rucdiger'^  give  numerous  expressions  of  ap- 
proval for  the  work  of  the  Institutes.  Smart,  after  commenting 
upon  the  poorly  trained  rural  school  teacher,  says: 

This  wide  spread  and  lasting  condition  of  this  explains  the  nece5>sity  of  supporting 
and  maintaining  teachers'  institutes  in  addition  to  Normal  Schools.'* 

This  same  authority  and  investigator  after  giving  a  brief  summary 
of  the  uses  of  the  Institutes  and  of  the  limitations  of  the  Normal 
Schools  and  Normal  Institutes  (not  to  be  confused  with  County 
Institutes),  gives  a  strong  endorsement  as  follows: 

All  these  and  many  other  uses  of  the  institute  have  been  tested  since  it  was 
first  introduced  by  Dr.  Hamard.  Without  doubt  it  is  destined  to  an  equally  useful 
and  varied  career  in  dilTerent  parts  of  the  countr>',  new  and  old,  during  the  future." 

But  all  the  praise  for  the  Institute  and  its  work  is  not  all  as  old 
and  as  far  back  as  1885.  In  1889  John  Hancock  of  Ohio  placed  the 
professional  influence  of  teachers'  institutes  above  that  of  Normal 
Schools  on  the  ground  that  they  reached  more  teachers."*  The  Insti- 
tute Manual  prepared  by  Supt.  Shawkey  of  West  Virginia  in  1910 
states  that  while  "there  is  a  disposition  on  the  part  of  some  thinkers 
to  do  away  with  this  phase  of  school  work  and  substitute  summer 
school  work  ..."  yet,  "inasmuch  as  it  has  stood  the  test  for 
many  years,  it  fills  a  peculiar  mission  in  our  scheme." 

"The  County  Institute"  was  the  subject  of  discussion  before  the 
County  Superintendents'  department  at  the  meetings  of  the  Penn- 
sylvania State  Educational  Association  at  Erie  in  June,  1910,  and  at 
Harrisburg  in  December,  1910.  Co.  Supt.  Robt.  C.  Shaw  of  West- 
moreland County  in  a  paper'-'  read  before  the  department,  said 
among  other  things: 

We  do  not  hesitate  to  say  that  in  our  opinion  the  most  capable  institute  instruct- 
ors of  .\merica  arc  brought  to  Pennsylvania  institutes,  and  because  of  this  every 
teacher  of  the  state  has  the  opportunity  of  hearing  the  best  and  most  advanced  thought 
along educationallines.  .  .  . 

.At  no  other  time  in  the  year  is  there  so  much  interest  taken  locally  in  the  work 
of  the  public  school  as  during  the  week  of  the  county  institute. 

"  Smart,  op.  cit. 

'•  Ruedigcr,  op.  cit. 

"  Smart,  op.  cit.  p.  10. 

'*  Proceedings  of  Department  of  Superintendence,  N.  K.  .A.  1S89,  p.  71. 

"Shaw,  "The  .\nnual  Institute,"  Pa.  School  Journal,  Aug.  1910,  p.  10.?. 


XII  COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 

In  this  paper  Supt.  Shaw  quotes  Dr.  Brumbaugh,  then  Supt.  of 
Philadelphia  and  later  Governor  of  the  state,  to  the  effect  that  in  the 
Pennsylvania  Institute  "we  have  a  week  of  professional  uplift  which 
is  of  great  value  to  the  school  system  as  a  whole.  I  trust  we  shall  not 
depart  from  it."  Continuing  Supt.  Shaw  quotes  Dr.  D.  J.  Waller, 
then  Principal  of  the  Bloomsburg  State  Normal  School: 

Teachers'  institutes  as  now  conducted  in  this  state  are  of  inestimable  value  in  their 
effect  upon  the  teachers  and  directors  immediately  interested  and  upon  the  cause  of 
education  thruout  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  Commonwealth.  I  know  of  no  evils 
that  should  be  charged  to  them  as  "results." 

Supt.  L.  E.  McGinnes,  of  Steelton  in  his  discussion  of  the  County 
Institute  before  the  department's  meeting  at  Harrisburg  in  Dec. 
1910  had  this  to  say  among  other  things  r^*^ 

Without  doubt,  this  annual  gathering  is  the  great  educational  red-letter  rally 
week  of  the  year,  and  will  remain  so  in  Pennsylvania  as  elsewhere,  as  long  as  teachers 
and  superintendents  need  to  grow  and  as  long  as  wholesome  public  sentiment  needs 
to  live.  Institute  spells  vacation  to  pupils,  pleasure  and  profit  to  patrons,  and  it  ought 
always  to  spell  an  inspiring,  professional  uplift  to  teachers.  .  .  . 

The  State  of  New  York  abolished  Teachers'  Institutes  in  1911. 
Four  years  before  the  Institute  was  abolished  "Teachers'  Institutes" 
was  an  important  topic  of  discussion  at  the  "52nd  Annual  Meeting  of 
the  New  York  State  Association  of  School  Commissioners  and 
Superintendents"  held  at  Syracuse,  November  6-8,  1907.  In  view 
of  the  fact  that  the  Legislature  of  the  State  within  a  few  years  voted 
to  abolish  the  Institute,  it  may  be  of  interest  at  this  point  to  quote 
briefly  from  Dr.  Sherman  Williams,  Institute  Conductor.  After 
discussing  the  inadequacy  of  supervision  as  then  conceived,  and 
lamenting  the  fact  that  "there  are  lecturers  of  educational  topics, 
whom  the  great  mass  of  teachers  never  hear,"  Dr.  Williams  gave  this 
tribute  to  the  institute,  so  soon  to  be  discontinued  in  his  own  state: 

The  Institute  is  the  one  attempt  that  has  reached  the  great  mass  of  the  teachers. 
It  is  still  the  most  helpful  means  of  reaching  and  influencing  the  mass  of  teachers,  the 
only  one  that  has  had  sufficient  vitality  to  last  for  more  than  60  years.  There'  is  a 
common  but  mistaken  notion,  that  institutes  are  chiefly  valuable  for  teachers  of  meager 
training  and  limited  experience.    Here  as  elsewhere  it  is  true  that  "to  him  that  hath 

'•*  McGinnes,  "The  Instructor  and  the  Institute,"  Pa.  School  Jour.  Mar.  1911,  p 
457. 


COUNTY  TEACHERS    INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  XIII 

shall  be  given."  The  more  a  teacher  brings  to  an  institute,  the  more  he  gets  from  it 
if  the  institute  is  what  it  ought  to  be.=' 

A  Striking  contrast  to  this  judgment  is  that  uttered  by  Co.  Supt. 
John  F.  Carr,  of  Marion  County,  Indiana,  a  state  where  the  Institute 
is  still  in  existence  and  is  carefully  controlled  by  the  state: 

The  County  Teachers'  Institute  in  Indiana  remains  practically  unchanged  from 
what  it  was  at  its  origin.  Surely,  it  did  not  leap  into  existence  fully  developed  and 
f>crfccted.  On  the  contrar>',  it  is  full  of  defects,  and  if  it  were  not  for  an  indilTerent 
legislature  that  has  control  of  it,  it  would  long  ago  have  abolished  itself  or  have  made 
radical  reforms.--  y' 

In  contrast  to  the  action  of  New  York  in  abolishing  Institutes  was 
the  action  of  the  Education  Commission  of  Illinois,  composed  of  seven 
prominent  educators  of  the  State,  whose  duty  was  "to  make  a  thor- 
ough investigation  of  the  common  school  system  of  Illinois"  and 
"to  make  a  comparative  study  of  such  other  systems  as  may  seem 
advisable  and  to  submit — a  report  including  such  suggestions,  recom- 
mendations, revisions,  additions,  corrections  and  amendments  as 
the  commission  shall  deem  necessary. "^^  This  commission  issued  its 
report  in  a  number  of  bulletins,  one  of  which  (No.  5)  covered  a  very 
thorough  and  nation  wide  investigation  of  Teachers'  Institutes. 
This  commission  recommended  a  County  System  of  Institutes,  on  a 
modified  New  York  and  Pennsylvania  type,  i.e.,  a  state  directed 
system  with  institute  agents,  and  compulsory  attendance  and  pay 
for  teachers.  This  suggested  plan  was  never  approved  by  the  Legis- 
lature. The  interesting  part  of  this  notable  report  on  Institutes  is 
the  fact  that  Institutes  were  recommended  to  be  continued. 

Another  report  that  mention  must  be  made  of  is  that  of  the 
Commission  on  Rural  Schools  authorized  by  the  Pennsylvania 
State  Educational  Association  in  1913  and  which  made  its  report  in 
1914.  One  phase  of  this  report^^  dealt  with  Institutes.  This  commis- 
sion did  not  recommend  the  abolishing  of  the  Institute.    A  few  ex- 

"  N.  Y.  State  Education  Dept.  Hulletin,  July  15,  190«. 

"Carr,  "Symposium  County  Teachers'  Institute — "The  Educator  Journal,"  Nov. 
1907,  p.  l.U. 

"  Illinois  School  Report,  1908-10,  p.  259. 

"Commission  Rural  Schools,  Report  Pa.  State  Ed.  .\ssociation  Proceedings, 
1914,  p.  38. 


XIV  COUNTY  TEACHERS    INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 

tracts  from  this  report  will  suffice  to  show  that  the  commission 
believed  in  the  Institute: 

"The  County  Institute  is  a  most  valuable  instrument  for  improving  the  educa- 
tional work  of  the  state." 

"Institutes  still  have  a  place  in  Pennsylvania  education.  In  scattered  communities 
they  call  the  teachers  together  for  some  days,  create  a  sohdarity  of  opinion,  give 
inspiration  and  some  good  ideas  that  afterguards  affect  teaching." 

"It  is  difficult  to  exaggerate  the  value  and  importance  of  the  Pennsylvania  system 
of  institutes  to  the  teachers  of  the  commonwealth." 

"The  value  of  the  institute  is  a  necessitj'^  to  the  growth  and  professional  Hfe  of  the 
teachers." 

"As  an  educational  agencv  the  institute  is  a  necessity." 

It  is  very  evident  from  the  excerpts  given  that  sharp  differences 
of  opinion  have  existed  for  many  years  as  to  the  real  status  of  the 
institute;  at  present  when  the  agencies  for  improving  teachers  are 
so  numerous,  there  is  a  genuine  doubt  as  to  whether  or  not  the  insti- 
tute functions.  But  thus  far  we  have  had  nothing  but  judgment,  in 
most  cases,  biased.,  because  of  the  interests  represented.  To  arrive 
at  a  scientific  determination  of  the  work  of  the  County  Institute, 
removed  as  far  as  possible  from  personal  judgment  and  bias,  is  the 
purpose  of  this  investigation.  That  it  is  difficult  to  measure  the  work 
of  the  institute,  is  obvious.  Even  with  the  standardized  tools  we 
have  to-day  for  measuring  the  products  of  the  school  room,  we 
frequently  find  divergence  of  results.  So  far  as  the  investigator  is 
aware,  there  is  no  ready  and  infallible  tool  to  measure  in  a  concrete 
way  the  actual  results  of  the  institutes  as  they  exist  to-day.  No 
extensive  effort  has,  therefore,  been  made  to  follow  up  any  group  of 
teachers  to  determine  whether  or  not  their  work  in  the  schoolroom 
was  better  done  after  the  institute.  This  would  be  the  ideal  way  to 
measure  results.  Other  methods,  however,  have  been  employed, 
which  should  assist  in  evaluating  the  institutes.  JSIuch  effort  has  been 
put  on  the  problem  of  determining  the  aims  and  functions  of  Insti- 
tutes in  the  past,  and  contrasting  these  with  the  present  day  needs  of 
teachers.  These  aims  and  purposes  are,  wherever  possible,  expressed 
in  terms  of  achievement.  This,  it  seems,  is  the  natural  operation  of 
the  simplest  law  of  efficiency — the  squaring  of  the  aim  or  purpose 
with  the  product.     These  aims  and  purposes  have  also  been  exam- 


COUNTY  TEACHERS    INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  XV 

ined  with  the  object  in  view  of  determining  their  appropriateness 
and  sutTicicncy  in  the  lijjht  of  current  educational  practices  and 
needs. 

The  study  will  reveal  that  one  of  the  outstanding  aims  of  the 
institute  has  been  and  should  be  the  training  of  teachers  in  service, 
tho  this  aim  is  not  always  recognized  or  granted.  The  study  will 
also  attempt  to  show  that  the  institute  must  be  an  agency  to  improve 
teachers  in  service,  if,  as  in  Pennsylvania,  it  should  continue  as  an 
institution  supported  by  public  funds.  It  will  further  be  shown 
that  historically,  at  least,  the  institute  had  another  very  impor- 
tant aim,  viz.,  the  formulation  of  a  healthy  public  sentiment  for  the 
improvement  of  the  profession  of  teaching  and  for  the  wider  and 
more  adequate  support  of  public  education.  In  a  general  way,  too, 
but  not  as  a  main  problem,  this  investigation  will  contrast  teacher 
training  facilities  in  1850  with  those  of  the  present  day.  Essentially, 
the  continuance  or  discontinuance,  the  improvement  or  the  change 
of  the  type  or  organization  of  the  County  Teachers'  Institute,  is  a 
concern  of  the  teacher  training  agencies  of  the  state.  It  is  proper, 
then,  that  the  present  day  institute  be  considered,  also,  in  the  light 
of  the  possible  role  it  might  play  in  the  teacher  training  program  of 
the  state. 

The  method  employed  in  this  investigation  is  a  combination  of 
the  historical  with  the  questionnaire  and  statistical.  The  former 
will  furnish  thru  original  and  secondary  sources  the  aims,  character, 
and  early  work  and  organization  of  the  first  institutes,  and  their 
gradual  evolution  to  the  present  status.  The  latter  method  at- 
tempts thru  the  judgment  and  e.xperience  of  teachers,  supervising 
principals,  county  and  district  superintendents,  and  state  depart- 
ments of  public  instruction,  to  determine  the  present  status  of 
institutes  as  to  their  aims,  organizations,  preferences,  values,  pro- 
grams, etc.  Replies  have  been  received  to  questionnaires  devised 
for  each  group  from  nearly  .SOOO  teachers  in  12  counties  arwl  four 
districts;  66  county  superintendents  in  the  state,  283  district  super- 
intendents and  supervising  principals;  from  46  out  of  48  State  De- 
partments of  Public  Instruction;  and  from  many  prominent  educators 
in  many  states. 

The  results  of  the  replies  to  these  questionnaires'"  are  used  pri- 
marily to  justify  or  reject  certain  conclusions.    These  reactions  from 

'*  Questionnaires  are  given  in  the  .\ppendix,  q.  v. 


XVI  COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 

all  these  factors  are  interpreted  thruout  the  chapters  and  shed  an 
important  light  on  certain  phases  of  the  problem. 

A  very  important  part  of  this  study  is  the  analysis  of  the  pro- 
grams and  the  personnel  of  the  county  institutes  in  Pennsylvania 
for  1919  and  1920.  This  is  an  attempt  to  determine  the  content  of 
the  instruction  given,  the  personnel  of  the  instructors,  in  the  light 
of  the  present  needs  and  tendencies  in  the  training  of  teachers  in 
service,  and  in  consideration  of  what  the  present  demands.  It  is 
upon  this  phase  of  the  investigation  that  the  achievement  of  the 
aims  of  the  institute  depends.  The  discussion  of  costs  will  also  play 
an  important  part  in  the  investigation. 

The  concluding  chapter  summarizes  the  results  of  the  study  and 
will  sum  up  not  only  the  main  findings,  but  will  endeavor  to  formu- 
late a  constructive  pohcy  in  the  matter  of  Teachers'  Institutes  in 
Pennsylvania. 


CHAPTER  I 

Historical  Origins  Teachers'  Institutes 
Part  of  Larger  Movement 

Historically,  ihe  s;rowth  and  development  of  Teachers'  Institutes 
in  the  U.  S.,  and  particularly  in  Pennsylvania,  constitute  an  impor- 
tant link  in  the  progressive  evolution  of  the  public  school  system. 
The  retrospect  in  this  chapter  is  necessarily  brief,  but  it  is  essential 
for  a  proper  understanding  of  the  real  mission  and  function  of  Insti- 
tutes in  the  past,  and  the  possible  policy  to  be  adopted  regarding 
them.  Teachers'  Institutes  are  intimately  connected  with  the  strug- 
gle in  the  U.  S.  for  establishing  the  public  schools  on  an  adequate 
basis  thru  improvement  of  the  training  of  teachers  by  the  founding 
of  Normal  Schools,  the  creation  of  the  County  Superintendency, 
and,  therefore,  supervision  and  the  molding  of  a  healthy  sentiment 
for  free  schools  It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  Institute  was  a 
step  in  this  upward  movement.  Ruediger^  has  well  pointed  out  that, 
"this  beginning  of  institutes  and  the  displacement  of  teachers'  con- 
ventions by  them  are  of  interest  in  this  connection  because  these 
data  seem  to  give  us  the  key  to  the  ultimate  outcome  of  institutes. 
To  rail  against  institutes  in  a  general  way  does  little  good.  What  is 
needed  is  an  adequate  conception  of  their  origin,  and  with  this  infor- 
mation at  hand  it  may  be  possible  to  infer  something  in  regard  to 
their  destiny."  Hence,  the  purpose  of  this  chapter  is  not  to  delve 
deeply  into  the  origin  of  institutes,  but  to  give  that  historical  back- 
ground which  will  throw  light  on  our  own  problems,  and  especially 
on  the  aims,  purposes,  and  functions  of  teachers'  institutes. 

It  cannot  be  said  with  any  degree  of  certainty  when  institutes 
first  came  into  existence.  This  is  in  a  large  measure  due  to  a  confusion 
in  the  use  of  terms,  as  will  be  shown  later.  Rucdiger-  and  Smart,' 
seem  to  agree  that  the  first  teachers'  institutes  held  in  America  was 
October  KS.S9,  when  Henry  Barnard,  Secretary  of  the  State  Board  of 
Education  of  Connecticut,  "assembled  twenty-six  young  men  to- 

'  Rucdiger,  Op.  Cit.  {>.  M. 
'  Ruediger,  Op.  Cit.,  p.  10. 
»  Smart,  Op.  Cit.,  p.  35. 


2  COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 

gether  and  formed  them  into  a  class  They  were  taught  for  six 
weeks  by  able  lecturers  and  teachers  and  had  the  advantage  of 
observation  in  the  public  schools  of  Hartford,*  Continuing,  this 
same  source  says:  "In  1846  a  convention  of  teachers  was  held, 
at  which  more  than  two  hundred  and  fifty  assembled.  The  exercise 
consisted  of  instruction  and  continued  through  five  days."  It  will 
be  noticed  that  the  term,  "institute"  is  not  used  in  this  report.  Fur- 
thermore, it  should  be  noted  that  the  term  "convention"  is  used, 
and  that  the  meeting  of  1839  continued  six  weeks,  whereas  the 
"convention"  of  1846  only  2  weeks. 

Horace  Mann  in  his  report  for  1844-45  says: 

They  (institutes)  originated  in  the  State  of  New  York  in  1843,  and  they  have  so 
commended  themselves  to  the  friends  of  education  that  they  have  been  held  during 
the  current  season  in  more  than  half  the  counties  of  New  York,  and  in  the  States  of 
Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  New  Hampshire,  Rhode  Island,  and  Massachusetts. 

Mann  thus  gives  the  claim  for  the  first  teachers'  institute  to  be  held 
under  that  name  to  New  York.  Confirming  this  claim  is  this  extract 
from  an  official  volume  issued  by  the  Education  Department  of  the 
State  of  New  York:^ 

The  first  teachers'  institute  ever  held  in  this  State  (New  York),  and  probably 
the  first  ever  held  in  this  countrj',  was  organized  at  Ithaca  on  the  4th  of  April,  1843. 
.  .  .  The  Ithaca  institute  was  held  by  County  Superintendent  J.  S.  Denman  of  Tomp- 
kins County,  and  was  in  session  for  two  weeks.  Supt.  Denman  was  the  originator  of 
the  system  to  give  instruction  to  teachers  under  the  plan  of  teacher's  institutes,  which 
has  become  quite  general  throughout  the  country. 

Development  of  Institutes  from  Teachers^  Associations 

There  is  little  doubt  that  the  first  school  for  teachers  or  "insti- 
tutes" as  State  Supt.  of  Conn,  in  his  report  of  1848  called  them,  had 
their  first  practical  origin  in  the  State  of  Conn,  in  1839,  originated 
by  Henry  Barnard,  and  that  a  meeting  of  this  kind  first  called  "insti- 
tute" was  held  by  Supt.  Denman  in  New  York  in  1843.  The  one 
important  link  that  seems  to  be  overlooked,  however,  is  the  incon- 
trovertible fact,  already  alluded  to  by  Ruediger,®  that  "institutes," 
whether  under  that  name  or  any  other  name,  were  the  logical  develop- 
ment from  teachers'  conventions  or  associations,  held  first  among 

♦  "Agencies  Employed  in  Training  Teachers,"  p.  285.  Document  issued  by  State 
Department  of  Public  Instruction,  Albanj^,  N.  Y. 

*  Ruediger,  Op.  Cit. 

•  Miller,  Monograph  "Histor>'  of  Educational  Legislation  in  Ohio,"  pp.  106, 
107,  108. 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  3 

private  school  teachers  for  social  or  convivial  purposes,  and  then 
gradually  assuming  the  character  of  voluntary  local  organizations 
whose  purpose  was  the  molding  of  public  sentiment  and  the  welfare 
of  teachers.  This  fact  has  been  very  clearly  established  by  a  recent 
"History  of  Educational  Legislation  in  Ohio  from  1803  to  1850."^ 
In  a  chapter  in  this  history  on  "The  Training  of  Teachers"  we  find 
this  statement: 

It  was  through  the  activity  of  voluntary  associations  of  teachers  and  friends  of 
education  that  the  first  efforts  were  made  to  raise  the  standard  of  the  teaching  profes- 
sion. As  early  as  1S29  such  an  association  had  been  meeting  regularly  in  Cincinnati 
for  the  discussion  of  educational  problems,  and  at  a  general  convention  to  which 
friends  of  education  thruout  the  Mississippi  Valley  were  invited  an  association  was 
formed  called  the  Western  College  of  Teachers.  .  .  . 

Continuing  this  same  chapter  says  that  in  1834 — five  years  before 
the  first  institute  in  Connecticut,  and  nine  before  the  one  held  in 
New  York  State — "an  act  was  passed  to  incorporate  'The  Teachers' 
Institute.'  The  preamble  and  first  section  are  of  interest  and  show 
an  advanced  educational  sentiment  on  the  part  of  the  incorporators 
and  a  definite  attempt  to  meet  the  needs  for  better  trained  teachers, 
and  illustrate  the  general  legislative  willingness  to  legalize  educa- 
tional effort  through  incorporation."  This  act  provided  "that  there 
shall  be  established  and  instituted — a  college  for  the  instruction  of 
candidates  for  professional  school  teachers,  and  for  the  purpose  of 
qualifying  such  teachers  in  the  best  manner  to  instruct  and  govern 
schools,  etc."  This  plan  of  the  Ohio  pioneers  anticipated  that  of 
Carter  in  Mass.  by  five  years,  tho  their  plan  did  not  materialize. 
It  was  worthy  of  note,  however,  that  the  so-called  "teachers  associa- 
tions" had  gradually  developed  into  "Teachers'  Institutes,"  and  that 
these  "Institutes"  were  legally  transformed  into  a  "college  of  teach- 
ers." The  cycle  seems  to  be  complete — meetings  of  teachers,  asso- 
ciations, institutes,  college  or  normal  school  for  teacher  training. 
True,  the  "college  for  the  instruction  of  candidates  for  professional 
school  teachers"  did  not  go  beyond  the  stage  of  incorporation,  but 
the  vision  and  controlling  motive  were  already  there.  The  close  rela- 
tion between  institutes  and  teachers  associations  is  further  illus- 
trated by  the  fact  that  even  Henry  Barnard  speaks  of  the  institute 
as  a  convention:  "During  the  year,  nine  Institutes  or  Conventions 
of  Teachers  have  been  held  in  different  parts  of  the  State  (Conn.), 
etc."     1.     In  fact,  the  very  name — "teachers'  institute"  seems  to 

'  Ruediger,  Op.  Cit.  p.  91. 


4  COUNTY  TEACHERS    INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 

have  been  adopted  from  the  name  of  "The  American  Institute  of 
Instruction,"  organized  as  a  voluntary  teachers'  association,  in  1830 
at  Boston,  an  association  which  still  exists  and  which  meets  annually. 
In  considering  the  origin  of  the  institute  in  Penna.,  it  can  be  shown 
very  clearly  that  teachers'  associations  grew  into  institutes,  and  that 
in  turn  institutes  took  over  most  of  the  ordinary  functions  of  the 
parent  organizations,  in  addition  to  the  attempts  to  train  teachers 
professionally.    To  quote  Ruediger:^ 

"When  teachers  Institutes  arose  in  the  nineteenth  century  they  displaced  many 
township  and  county  teachers'  associations.  This  was  regretted  by  Horace  Mann, 
but  he  thought  that  the  loss  would  be  more  than  counterbalanced  by  the  greater  pro- 
fessional merits  of  the  institute.  If,  however,  the  institute  failed  to  provide  for  the 
spontaneous  associations  of  teachers,  one  would  expect  that  in  the  natural  course  of 
events  these  voluntary  conventions  would  again  rise." 

It  is  of  considerable  import,  also,  to  note  that  the  act  which  legalized 
teachers'  institutes  in  Mass.  in  1846  and  provided  for  aid,  also  legal- 
ized County  Teachers'  Associations  as  is  evidenced  by  this  quotation:^ 

Whenever  any  county  association  of  teachers,  and  others,  shall  hold  semi-annual 
meetings  of  not  less  than  two  days  each,  for  the  express  purpose  of  promoting  the 
nterests  of  common  schools,  such  associations  are  entitled  to  receive  fifty  dollars  a 
year  from  the  state. 

As  far  as  any  authentic  record  goes,  this  is  the  first  instance  where 
such  an  association  has  been  legalized.  Under  this  act,  the  first 
association  organized  was  that  of  Essex  County,  1830.  Its  purpose 
was  declared  to  be  "the  improvement  of  teachers  and  the  system  of 
education  generally." 

It  is  not  an  important  part  of  this  investigation  to  trace  any  more 
intimately  the  relation  between  the  early  teachers'  meetings  or 
associations  and  the  institutes,  although  it  appears  that  in  Pennsyl- 
vania this  relationship  was  closer.  Wickersham^"  has  traced  this 
relationship  rather  minutely  from  1814  when  "there  was  an  organiza- 
tion in  Philadelphia  entitled  'a  Society  for  the  promotion  of  a  rational 
System  of  Education,'"  1817  when  "James  Edward  presided  over 
'The  Philadelphia  and  Pennsylvania  Association  of  Teachers  of  the 
Lancasterian  System  of  Education.'  "  In  1835  two  associations 
were  formed  in  Philadelphia — "a  Philadelphia  Lyceum  of  Teachers" 

*  Mann  "Tenth  Annual  Report"  as  quoted  by  Barnard  in  "Normal  Schools, 
etc.,"  p.  190. 

'  Wickersham,  J.  P.,  "Histor>^  of  Education  in  Pa.,"  ch.  XXVTII. 
'"Wickersham,  Op.  Cit.  Ch.  XXVIII. 


COUNTY  teachers'  institutes  in  PENNSYLVANIA  5 

and  the  "American  Association  for  the  Supply  of  Teachers."  In 
1S50  there  was  organized  "The  Philadelphia  Association  of  Principals 
of  Public  Schools,"  which  in  1867  was  incorporated  by  the  Legislature 
as  "The  Teachers'  Institute  of  Philadelphia,"  whose  object  was  "the 
improvement  of  the  teachers  of  the  j)ublic  schools  of  the  city  and  the 
county  of  Philadelphia,  by  means  of  lectures,  essays  and  discussions 
upon  educational  topics,  practical  illustrations  of  modes  of  teaching, 
the  formation  of  a  teachers'  library,  etc."  In  the  Report  of  the  State 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  for  the  year  1877  are  found 
numerous  accounts  of  early  teachers'  meetings  and  associations  held 
as  far  back  as  1827  and  1829  in  Lehigh  County  where  "The  School- 
masters' Synod"  held  regularly  advertised  meetings.  From  1848 
until  1852  when  the  State  Teachers'  Association  was  formed  many 
local  and  county  associations  were  created.  Some  of  these  developed 
into  the  first  institutes  held  in  the  state,  viz.,  the  one  held  at  Colum- 
bus, Warren  County,  1848,  and  Lawrence  County,  1851.  The  first 
teachers'  institute  held  in  Eastern  Pennsylvania  grew  immediately 
out  of  the  Lancaster  County  Educational  Association.  Indeed,  this 
gradual  transition  and  coalescence  of  early  teachers'  associations 
led  Wickersham  to  say:" 

".\  Teachers'  Institute  has  characteristics  so  well  defined  that  no  one  has  had 
any  difliculty  in  calling  a  body  of  teachers  organized  in  this  form  by  the  wrong  name. 
This  was  not  the  case  when  the  institute  was  first  introduced  into  Pennsylvania. 
Bodies  of  teachers  alike  in  all  respects  were  then  known  indiscriminately  as  associa- 
tions, conventions,  or  institutes;  and  it  is,  therefore,  quite  impossible  to  point  with 
certainty  to  the  place  where  the  first  institute  proper  was  held.  But  we  can  trace  out 
the  beginnings  of  institutes  as  we  have  traced  out  the  beginnings  of  associations, 
both  being  parts  of  the  same  movcmail." 

This  movement,  of  course,  was  the  professional  preparation  of  teachers 
and  the  rise  of  the  teaching  profession  thru  the  founding  of  Normal 
Schools,  not  before  1859  in  Pennsylvania  tho  established  in  Mass. 
in  1838  and  in  eight  other  states  previous  to  Pennsylvania.'^  In  view 
of  this  close  interrelationship  and  influence  of  Teachers'  Institutes 
and  Teachers'  Associations  on  the  growth  of  teacher  training,  it  is 
rather  strange  that  these  organizations  have  not  received  their  proper 
emphasis  in  such  a  comprehensive  study  as  the  one  recently  conducted 
by  the  "The  Carnegie  Foundation.""    To  understand  the  past  and 

"  Bagley,  et  al.  "Professional  Preparation  of  Teachers,  etc."  Bull.  14.  Carnegie 
Foundation,  p.  418. 

'»  Bagley,  et  al.  Op.  Cit.  Ch.  III. 

"Mann,  "Seventh  .Annual  Report,  M.iss.  Bd.  of  Kd." 


6         COUXTY  TEACHERS  INSTITUTES  IN"  PENN'SYLVAXIA 

present  function  of  Teachers'  Institutes  it  is  necessan.'  to  bear  this 
genesis  in  mind. 

Early  Purpose  and  Their  Rapid  Spread 

It  is  immaterial  whether  Teachers'  Institutes  had  their  first 
real  origin  in  Connecticut  in  1S39  or  in  Xew  York  in  1843.  They  did 
spread  rapidly  after  1843  in  contiguous  states.  We  find  Horace 
Mann  pleading  for  this  form  of  teachers'  meetings  and  in  1844  four 
institutes  in  Mass.  lasted  two  weeks  and  the  attendance  was  restricted 
to  one  hundred  teachers — fifty  male  and  fifty  female.  The  success 
of  three  institutes  led  Mann"  to  urge  the  legislature  to  appropriate 
money  for  their  support,  after  he  had  paid  the  deficit  of  the  first 
institutes  out  of  his  own  pocket.  Massachusetts  was  the  first  state 
to  make  such  an  appropriation  in  1846.  Xew  York  following  in  1847, 
and  Pennsylvania  in  1855.  In  connection  with  this  aid  it  is  interest- 
ing to  note  that  the  expenses  of  each  institute  were  limited  to  $200 
each,  the  amount  that  has  been  the  limit  of  county  assistance  to 
institutes  in  Pennsylvania  since  such  aid  was  given. 

Priority  of  origin  is  of  less  import  than  a  realization  of  the  condi- 
tions which  made  necessar}*  the  establishment  of  Teachers'  Institutes." 
The  purpose  in  organizing  them,  however,  seems  to  be  quite  clear. 
Their  origin  was  due  largely  to  the  emergencj-  in  education  that 
existed  soon  after  establishing  the  public  or  common  school  system. 
This  emergency  was,  as  it  is  now,  the  scarcity  of  well  trained  and 
competent  teachers,  and,  of  course,  the  facilities  to  train  them.  This 
lack  of  preparation  and  scarcity  of  teachers  can  be  no  better  illus- 
trated than  by  the  "Memorial  of  the  American  Institute  of  Instruc- 
tion to  the  Legislature  of  Massachusetts  on  Normal  Schools,"  1837, 
extracts  of  which  are  herewith  given.*' 

"That  there  is,  throughout  the  Commonwealth,  a  great  want  of  well-qualified 
teachers: 

'That  this  is  felt  in  all  the  schools  of  all  classes,  but  especially  in  the  most  impKtr- 
tant  and  nianerous  class,  the  district  school;  (rural): 

"That  whenever,  in  any  town,  exertion  has  been  made  to  improve  these  schools, 
it  has  been  met  and  baiBed  by  the  want  of  good  teachers;  that  they  have  been  sought 
for  in  \-ain;  the  highest  salaries  have  been  ocered,  to  no  purpose;  that  they  are  not  to 
be  found  in  sufficient  numbers  to  supply  the  demand: 

'"That  their  place  is  supphed  by  persons  exceedingly  incompetent,  in  many 
respects;  by  young  men,  in  the  course  of  their  studies,  teaching  from  necessity,  and 

"  Barnard — Xormal  Schools  and  other  Agencies,  p.  85. 
'*  Barnard,  Xormal  Schools  and  other  Agencies,  p.  95. 


COUXTY  TEACHERS    IXSTTTCTES  EX  PEVN5  »  :.  .  ^  . .  ^  7 

alum  wkk  a  *tnng  disfikc  far  the  pnisait;  bjr  mrrtonifs  aad  otliefs  waatiog  pwacat 
enplo^naeat;  and  bjr  pniflns  who  haTing  failed  in  other  falling*,  take  to  frariiing  as 
a  last  resort,  vith  no  qnalifirarioos  for  it,  and  no  dcsine  of  fiaitiwiiiig  it  loneer  thui 
thejr  are  cklaged  bjr  absoiutf  necessity.  .  .  . 

".  .  .  We  do  not  state  tlie  fact  too  straof^  when  we  saqrtliai  the  time,  capadtiea, 
and  opportunities  of  thousands  of  the  ddUien  are  now  sanrificwi,  winter  after  winter, 
to  the  prrpaiation  of  teachers,  who,  after  this  enonnous  sarrifcr,  are  notwithstinding; 
often  vety  wretchedly  prepared." 

Dr.  Channing  in  advocating  the  establishment  of  an  institution  for 
the  training  of  teachers  on  Feb.  28,  1837,  at  Boston  thus  expre^ed 
himself  :»• 

We  need  an  institntioo  for  the  formalinn  of  better  trarhrrs;  and  ontil  this  step  b 
taken,  we  can  make  no  in^KXtant  progressu  The  matt  tryimg  wmmt  in  this  Cominna- 
weabh  is  the  wamt  of  aooanpEshed  teachers.  We  boast  of  oar  schools,  bat  oar  schools 
do  ooDipaiatTrdy  Gttle  for  want  of  cdnrated  instroctOB.  .  .  . 

This  situation  was  further  intenafied  by  the  extreme  apathy  on  the 
part  of  the  public  towards  the  common  schools  which  were  for  many 
years  after  their  establishment  viewed  as  charitable  institutions. 
It  was  this  apathy  that  brought  to  the  front  men  like  Horace  Mann 
and  Henry  Barnard,  the  apostles  of  an  enlightened  public  opinion  in 
that  period  of  American  Education  known  as  "the  common  school 
re\-i\-ar'  from  1830  to  1840."  It  was  in  this  period  that  "the  teachers' 
institute  which  is  an  original  American  institution  for  training  teach- 
ers, has  grown  up  side  by  side  with  the  normal  schooL^*  The  devdop- 
ment  of  the  two  seems  to  be  paralleL  The  need  for  capable  teachers 
brought  insistent  demands  from  men  like  James  G.  Carter,  the 
"father  of  Normal  Schools"  in  America,  responsible  for  the  passage 
of  the  Normal  School  Act  in  Massachusetts  in  1838;  Charles  Brooks, 
who  visited  the  Prusaan  Normal  Schools  in  1834,  and  difweminated 
the  ideas  he  had  gained;  Henry  Barnard,  the  distinguished  pioneer 
in  educational  journalism;  and,  "especially  Horace  Mann,  who,  as 
Secretary'  of  the  State  Board  of  Exiucation  in  Massachusetts,  did 
more  than  any  one  other  to  develop  the  Normal  Schoc4  idea  and  to 
make  it  effective.*'  It  was  in  the  storm  and  stress  of  this  "educational 
decadence,*'^*  that  teachers'  institutes  had  their  origin.  As  a  result 
of  his  failure  to  persuade  the  Connecticut  Legislature  to  provide  a 

x  Graves,  "Sstoiy  of  Edocataonr  VoL  3,  ch.  6. 

<*  Hinsdale,  'Coining  of  Teachers,"  in  Batter's  "FAiration  in  U.  S,"  pt  J82. 

»•  Graves,  Op.  Gt.  Ch.  6,  p.  165. 

*•  Cohbeziey,  "mnory  of  Edwatiaa,"  p.  601. 


8  COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 

Normal  School  in  1838,  he  inaugurated  a  year  later  (1839)  the  system 
of  teachers'  institutes  as  already  mentioned.  It  was  not  until  1849 
that  the  first  Normal  School  was  established  in  Conn.  These  early 
institutes  as  inaugurated  by  Barnard  continued  from  four  to  six 
weeks  and  were  virtually  summer  schools.  The  first  Model  School 
in  this  country  was  established  in  1849  (Monroe  Cyclopedia  of 
Education),  but  we  are  told  by  Cubberley^"  that  "for  his  teachers' 
institutes  Barnard  devised  a  travelling  model  school,  to  give  demon- 
stration lessons  in  the  art  of  teaching."  Thus  the  purpose  of  this 
pioneer  institute  in  the  words  of  Dr.  Barnard  was  "to  show  the  prac- 
ticability of  making  some  provision  for  the  better  qualification  of 
common  school  teachers,  by  giving  them  the  opportunity  to  revise 
and  extend  their  knowledge  of  the  studies  usually  pursued  in  the 
District  Schools,  and  of  the  best  method  of  school  arrangements, 
instruction,  and  government,  under  the  recitations  and  lectures  of 
experienced  and  well  known  teachers  and  educators. "^^  In  Barnard's 
"Draft  of  a  School  Law"  submitted  to  the  Legislature  of  Rhode 
Island  in  May  1844,  advocating  Teachers'  Institutes,"  he  defined  and 
explained  Teachers'  Institutes"  in  essentially  the  same  language:" 

By  a  Teachers'  Institute  is  meant  all  which  is  generally  understood  by  a  Teachers' 
Assocaition  and  something  more.  It  is  an  organization  of  the  teachers  of  a  town, 
county,  or  state  for  improvement  in  their  profession,  by  meeting  for  a  longer  or  shorter 
time  for  a  thorough  review  of  the  studies  of  the  public  schools,  under  teachers  of  ac- 
knowledged reputation,  as  weU  as  for  lectures,  discussions,  and  essays  on  various 
methods  of  school  discipline  and  instruction.  .  .  . 

The  subjects  that  were  taught  in  the  first  institute  (1839)  are  as 
follows  -P 

Grammar,  Mental  and  Practical  Arithmetic,  with  explanation  of  "difficult  points 
in  Fractions,  Roots,  &c";  "different  points  of  Higher  Mathematics  so  far  as  the}^  were 
ever  taught  in  district  schools,  or  would  help  to  explain  elementary  Arithmetic"; 
lessons  in  Reading;  English  Composition;  lectures  on  school  government;  first  princi- 
ples of  Mathematical  and  Astronomical  Geography,  the  use  of  Globes,  &c.  Mr. 
Barnard  delivered  several  lectures  explanatory  of  the  relations  of  the  teacher  to  the 
school  system,  to  parents,  and  to  pupils";  also  on  the  laws  of  health  to  be  practically 
observed  by  pupils  and  teachers  in  the  school  room;  on  the  best  methods  of  conducting 
Teachers'  Associations,  and  of  interesting  parents."  He  also  pointed  out  the  imme- 
diate, extensive,  and  practical  results  of  gathering  the  young  and  less  experienced 
teachers  of  a  county  for  a  brief  but  systematic  review  of  the  whole  subject.  .  .  . 

^'^  Barnard,  "American  Journal  of  Education,"  Vol.  15,  p.  387-389. 
^'  Barnard,  "American  Journal  of  Education,"  Vol.  15,  p.  407. 
'"  Barnard,  ".American  Journal  of  Education,"  Vol.  15. 
2'  Barnard,  "American  Journal  of  Education,"  Vol.  15. 


COUNTY  TEACHERS    INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  9 

These  gatherings  were  shown  to  be  highly  useful  in  reference  to  the  local  improvement 
of  schools,  where  they  should  be  held. 

In  1845,  six  years  after  the  first  institute  in  Connecticut,  Barnard 
replied  to  a  letter  received  from  James  M.  Bunce,  touching  on  the 
subject  of  institutes.  Parts  of  the  letter  are  indicative  of  a  second 
great  purpose  Barnard  had  in  organizing  institutes — that  of  creating 
strong    public    sentiment:'" 

My  advice  is  to  bring  up  these  subjects,  including  the  right  and  duty  of  taxation 
for  school  purpjoscs, — in  a  series  of  evening  meetings,  held  as  a  part  of  Teachers' 
Institutes,  substantially  like  those  established  at  Hartford  in  IS.V).  The  leading 
features  should  be  the  same  but  I  would  advise  sessions  of  not  more  than  a  week, — no 
longer  than  you  can  keep  up  the  enthusiastic  interest  and  attention  of  the  members, 
who  should  be  distribuU-d  thru  the  families.  This  is  an  essential  feature  of  my  ideal  of 
a  Teachers'  Institute,  held  in  reference  not  only  to  the  professional  training  of  teachers, 
but  to  the  development  of  parental  interest  and  appreciation  of  their  work,  as  well  as  to 
local  school  improvement.  If  I  am  correct  in  this  obser\-ation,  you  had  better  dis- 
cuss the  establishment  of  a  City  High  School,  when  the  public  mind  is  warmed  by 
the  protracted  discussions  and  addresses  of  arousing  teachers'  institutes.  .  .  .  .And 
in  due  time,  longer  or  shorter,  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  meetings  of  the 
right  kind  you  hold  in  the  places  which  need  the  quickening  influence  of  discussion 
and  light,  a  revolution  will  be  achieved  in  the  school  habits  and  the  school  laws  of 
Conn. 

Aside  from  the  real  need  to  train  teachers  and  to  improve  them  in  the 
service,  it  is  very  clear  that  Barnard  regarded  the  teachers'  institute 
as  a  powerful  influence  in  affecting  and  molding  public  sentiment. 
This  is  seen  in  all  his  reports  of  institutes,  but  in  no  clearer  way  than 
in  the  essay  written  by  Dr.  Porter  at  the  request  of  Mr.  Barnard, 
1846,  extracts  of  which  follow: 

Teachers'  Institutes  may  be  held  thruout  the  state,  and  that  also,  without  delay. 
These  are  conventions  for  mutual  improvement  and  exiitement.  .  .  .  Here  raw  and 
timid  teachers  are  initiated  into  their  new  business;  older  teachers  receive  valuable 
suggestions  and — apply  them.  An  enthusiasm  in  their  business  is  excited.  They  are 
impressed  with  right  views  of  the  dignity  and  solemnity  of  their  emplojTnent.  .  .  . 
These  institutes  dilTer  from  ordinar\'  conventions,  in  that  they  furnish  defmite  business, 
and  are  spent  in  gaining  real  knowledge.  They  are  not  wasted  in  idie  liarangues  and 
fine  speeches.  .  .  .  Let  these  Institutes  be  held  in  Connecticut  without  delay, — and 
it  will  do  much  to  kindle  zeal  and  create  hope  for  our  common  schools.  .  .  .  I^et  it  be 
tried  and  it  will  not  be  many  years  before  the  inquiry  will  l)e  raised,  whether  an  educa- 
tion for  their  (teachers')  is  not  required,  and  whether  schools  for  this  specific  purpose 
are  not  demanded. 

This  was  the  famous  "prize  essay,"  whose  ideas  were  incorporated  in 
Barnard's  Report  for  1846,  urging  the  establishment  of  teachers' 

'*  Barnard,  "American  Journal  of  Education,"  Vol.  15,  pp.  392-.394. 


10  COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 

institutes  next  to  that  of  Normal  Schools.  It  is  clear  in  this  essay 
that  in  addition  to  the  use  of  institutes  for  the  training  of  teachers 
and  arousing  of  public  sentiment,  was  the  development  of  profes- 
sional spirit  or  zeal. 

Character  of  Early  Institutes 

Because  of  the  historical  bearing  on  the  function  of  institutes, 
excerpts  from  "The  Institute  Circular  Letter"  sent  out  by  Barnard  as 
Commissioner  of  Public  Schools  of  Rhode  Island  on  the  aim,  method, 
and  spirit  of  the  Institutes  will  be  apropos  :2» 

Exercises  of  the  Institute  will  embrace: 

1.  A  review  of  the  studies  usually  taught  in  the  public  schools  of  this  state  with 
the  exemplifications  of  the  best  method  of  instruction  in  each  branch,  and  with  special 
attention  to  difllculties  as  any  member  of  the  Institute  may  have  encountered  teaching 
the  same; 

2.  Familiar  lectures  and  discussions  among  members  in  the  organizations  of 
schools,  the  classification  of  pupils,  and  the  theory  and  practice  of  teaching; 

3.  Public  lectures  and  discussions  in  the  evening,  on  topics  calculated  to  interest 
parents  and  the  community  generally,  in  the  subject  of  education,  and  the  organiza- 
tion, administration,  and  improvement  of  public  schools. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  details  of  organization,  of  peculiar  inter- 
est to  those  who  desire  short  institute  sessions: 

Sessions  started  at  8:45  and  continued  until  12  o'clock,  and  from  1:30  to  5:00, 
with  five  or  ten  minutes  intermission  at  the  end  of  each  hour.  Institute  lasted  during 
the  week. 

Following  are  some  of  the  topics  discussed: 

The  length  and  frequency  of  recess  in  the  daily  sessions  of  school; 

Neatness  in  and  about  the  school  room; 

Punctuality  and  regularity  in  attendance; 

Management  of  bad  boys  in  school; 

Oral  instruction; 

Cheerfulness  in  school  rooms,  discipline,  etc. 

The  community  interest  is  well  illustrated  by  the  fact  that  the  place 
of  meeting  was  crowded  every  evening  by  the  citizens  of  the  place 
and  neighborhood,  and  that  at  the  close  of  the  meeting  on  Friday 
night,  a  resolution  like  the  following  was  unanimously  passed: 

Resolved,  That  this  community  have  felt  a  deep  interest  in  the  exercises  of  the 
Teachers'  Institute  held  among  us  .  .  .  and  we  regard  it  a  special  favor  that  the 
teachers  resorted  to  this  place,  etc.  .  .  . 

-'Barnard,  "American  Journal  of  Education,"  V'ol.  15. 


COUNTY  TEACIIIRS'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  11 

We  can  see  thai  the  topics  discussed  were  strictly  pedagogical  and 
practical;  the  community  spirit  high.  Mr.  Barnard  himself  is  witness 
to  the  transformation  wrought  by  the  institute  in  Rhode  Island  when 
he  tells  us  that  they  "wrought  a  revolution  in  the  ideals  and  habits  of 
the  people  of  Rhode  Island." 

Before  considering  more  concretely  the  early  beginnings  of 
Teachers'  Institutes  in  Pennsylvania,  a  few  extracts  from  the  reports 
of  the  early  institutes  in  two  or  three  other  states,  will  aid  our  inter- 
pretation of  the  early  institutes,  particularly  in  the  states  of  New 
York  and  Ohio  in  both  of  which  states  the  institutes  appeared  to 
make  earlier  headway.  From  the  report^^  of  Supt.  Denman,  ac- 
credited with  having  held  the  first  Teachers'  Institute  in  the  U.  S. 
we  learn  that  at  this  first  institute,  1843, 

Twenty-eight  teachers  were  in  attendance,  and  received  daily  instruction  for 
a  term  of  two  weeks,  in  the  best  modes  of  governing  and  teaching  the  various  common 
branches  which  necessarily  included  a  critical  review  of  those  branches  and  were 
instructed  in  the  analysis  of  the  Knglish  language,  vocal  music,  and  other  branches  not 
hitherto  usually  taught  in  the  common  schools.  .  .  .  Having  previously  visited  the 
schools  of  those  present  at  the  institute,  it  gives  me  great  pleasure  to  be  able  to  state 
that  their  schools  during  the  past  summer  have  been  conducted  from  50  to  100% 
better  than  formerly. 

From  the  Report^  of  1845  we  get  the  first  danger  signal: 

Mr.  Page,  Principal  of  a  State  Normal  School  and  who  had 
addressed  11  institutes  attended  by  over  1000  teachers  said: 

.  .  .  Tiiey  are  exposed  to  dangers.  .  .  .  One  of  the  threatening  dangers  is  that 
these  institutes  may  with  their  sessions  of  ten  days  in  a  year  become  substitutes  for 
more  thorough  training.   .  .  . 

Mr.  Page  also  commended  the  institutes  as: 

Valuable  instrumentalities  in  elevating  the  profession  of  the  teacher. 

From  the  Report  of  Supt.  Galloway,  Ohio,  Jan.  14,  1847  we  get 
this  comment:^® 

.  .  .  There  is  no  plan  so  well  calculated  to  produce  a  reform  in  the  character  of 
teachers,  as  these  recent,  but  rapidly  extending  associations  designated  as  "Teachers' 
Institutes."  The  prominent  object  of  this  institution  is  to  prepare  teachers  for  a  full 
and  successful  discharge  of  their  duties.  .\t  these  meetings  which  are  usually  held 
semi-annually,  and  for  a  pcrio<i  of  tuo  to  three  weeks,  the  teachers  form  themselves  into 
a  school,  etc.  .  .  .  Another  object  contemplated  i)y  these  "institutes"  is  to  enlighten 
public  sentiment.  To  secure  this,  our  public  evening  sessions  are  held,  at  which  the 
nature  and  importance  of  education,  and  the  duties,  obligations,  and  responsibilities  of  all 

*•  Barnard,  "American  Journal  of  Fxlucation,"  Vol.  1.x 


12  COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 

classes  .  .  .  are  prominently  presented  and  pressed  upon  public  attention.     (Italics 
are  writer's.) 

Origins  in  Pennsylvania 

The  rise  of  Teachers'  Institutes  in  Pennsylvania  is  attributable 
to  three  causes,  all  of  which  are  steps  in  the  evolution  of  the  free 
public  schools.  The  first  of  these  causes,  as  in  the  New  England 
States,  was  the  wretched  academic  and  professional  status  of  teach- 
ers about  1850;  the  second,  and  probably  just  as  important  and 
powerful,  was  the  creation  of  a  sentiment  which  would  compel  the 
legislature  to  act;  and  in  the  third  place,  we  have  the  institute  in  the 
hands  of  the  county  superintendent  as  an  administrative  device  for 
exercising  his  power  or  leadership.  It  is  very  doubtful,  as  will  be 
revealed  by  our  sources,  whether  any  of  these  causes  was  of  any  but 
a  temporary  character.  The  County  Institute  was  designed  as  a 
temporary  expedient — a  link  in  tiding  over  the  great  teacher  emer- 
gency of  the  fifties  and  sixties  until  Normal  Schools  could  be  estab- 
lished. We  shall  gradually  trace  this  historic  conception  of  teachers' 
institutes  in  Pennsylvania. 

It  is,  of  course,  impossible  to  separate  these  three  causes  and  many 
minor  ones.  They  are  all  interrelated  and  all  operated  in  bringing 
about  the  introduction  of  the  institute  system  into  the  State.  It 
cannot  be  said  with  certainty  whether  the  need  for  adequately 
prepared  teachers  was  the  prime  factor,  or  whether  it  was  the  creation 
of  public  sentiment  thru  these  organizations  that  seem  to  have 
grown  out  of  the  many  local  and  county  associations  in  Pennsylvania. 
On  account  of  the  many  teachers'  associations  in  Pennsylvania  prior 
to  1850,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  determine  where  the  first  real 
teachers'  institute  was  held.  Wickersham,  seems  to  think  that  the 
"first  well  defined  Teachers'  Institute  of  which  we  can  find  any  record 
was  held  at  Columbus,  Warren  County,  in  1848.  It  continued  in 
session  at  least  two  weeks."^''  While  this  institute  met  in  1848, 
Crawford  County  claims  the  first  institute,  tho  it  was  held  in  1850.^^ 
Dr.  John  Barker,  a  former  President  of  Allegheny  College,  has 
thrown  some  interesting  light  on  this  Crawford  County  Institute. 
To  quote  in  part; 

The  past  historj'  of  the  Crawford  County  teachers'  institute  is  one  on  which 
every  friend  of  popular  education,  indeed  of  everj'  friend  of  humanity,  and  of  his  race, 

"Wickersham,  Op.  Cit.  p.  651. 
=«Pa.  State  Report,  1877,  p.  201. 


COUNTY  teachers'   INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  13 

must  dwell  with  unalloNcd  pleasure.  .  .  .  Tluts  far  harmony,  energy,  has  marked 
the  deliberations  of  this  hody;  progress  has  been  its  watchword,  and  under  its  auspices, 
a  vast  amount  of  infonnation  has  been  dilTused  thru  the  community  at  large  in  regard 
to  the  propir  province  of  public  schools}* 

It  is  evident  that  in  this  opinion,  the  diffusion  of  information  and 
the  influence  on  the  community  were  features. 

It  remained  for  Dr.  Thomas  H.  Burrowes,  of  Lancaster,  later 
State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  to  state  rather  clearly  the 
controlling  aim  of  the  Institutes  as  he  saw  it  in  1852.  At  the  opening 
of  the  Conemaugh  Institute  in  Indiana  County,  Dr.  Burrowes  spoke 
in  part  as  follows:'" 

The  Common  School  system,  though  it  has  done  much,  has  advanced  Ijut  little 
as  a  practical  means  of  teaching.  .And  why  has  it  not  advanced?  Because  we  have  all 
been  laboring  under  a  mistake.  We  have  all  been  calling  upon  Hercules  to  help  us, 
but  we  have  not  been  putting  our  shoulders  to  the  wheel.  We  have  been  asking  the 
Legislature  to  take  action  for  the  cause  of  education,  but,  mark  these  words,  "we  have 
neglected  to  take  measures  for  forming  that  public  opinion  which  makes  the  legislature 
act.  The  move  must  take  place  with  you  the  teachers,  aiul  us  the  people."  Note  further 
these  words:  "IIV  must  organize  teachers'  institutes  and  form  other  associations  for 
elrcaling  tlie  standard  of  education."    (Italics  are  the  writer's.) 

There  can  be  no  mistake  in  what  Burrowes  regarded  as  the  moving 
spirit  in  the  establishment  of  Institutes.  It  was  a  form  of  publicity 
and  propaganda  to  influence  the  Legislature. 

In  a  circular  letter  on  Teachers'  Institutes''  sent  out  on  Feb.  16, 
1853  by  J.  M.  Barnett,  a  member  of  the  Executive  Committee  State 
Teachers'  Association  just  organized  the  year  before,  is  found  a  most 
illuminating  explanation  of  the  function  and  purpose  of  the  early 
teachers'  institutes: 

.  .  .  My  object  first  is  to  obtain  definite  and  reliable  infonnation  in  regard  to  the 
condition  of  the  schools  of  your  county,  the  kind  of  teachers  employed,  and  the  degree 
of  interest  manifested  by  the  parents  in  the  cause.  .   .   . 

I  presume  that  teachers  as  a  class  are  but  poorly  (jualihcd  and  the  people  manifes 
but  little  interest  in  the  education  of  their  children.  If  this  be  the  case,  what  measure 
are  you  taking  to  remedy  these  evils?  .  .  .  Allow  me  to  suggest  institutes.  The 
executive  committee  of  the  State  Teachers'  .Association  .  .  .  were  instructed  to  devise 
and  carry  into  elTect  as  far  as  possible  measures  for  holding  a  Teachers'  Institute  in 
ever>'  county  of  the  state.  The  reasons  urged  were  that  institutes  are  tlic  best  available 
means  for  mututii  improvement  among  teachers,  for  elevating  the  tciulurs'   profession  and 

*»  Pa.  State  Report,  1877,  p.  202. 

»•  Pa.  Journal  of  Kd.  \  ol.  1,  p.  2.U  (1852). 

"  Barnett,  Penna.  School  Journal,  Vol.  1,  185^,  p.  4.^7,  4,W. 


14  COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 

the  character  of  our  common  schools  to  what  they  should  be — and  for  awakening  a  deep 
and  abiding  interest  among  the  people  in  the  great  cause  of  education.  I  will  add  only  one 
other  consideration  in  their  favor.  It  is  universally  admitted  that  Pennsylvania  should 
have  schools  for  the  special  purpose  of  training  her  teachers  professionally.  The  insti- 
tute furnishes  the  surest  means  to  secure  their  establishment.    (Italics  are  writer's.) 

This  Institute  Circular  is  quoted  so  fully,  with  important  parts 
capitalized  by  the  writer,  because  it  summarizes  all  the  important 
factors  in  the  development  of  the  institute — preparation  of  teachers, 
professional  zeal,  improving  the  schools,  creating  sentiment,  and 
establishing  Normal  Schools.  A  few  months  later,  William  Travis^^ 
Chairman  of  the  Executive  Committee  of  the  same  association, 
issued  another  stirring  appeal  along  the  same  lines.  Under  the 
"nature  and  advantages  of  Teachers'  Institutes"  were  mentioned: 

1.  Associations  of  Teachers  for  mutual  improvement  in  the  art  of  teaching; 

2.  Teachers  are  brought  together  as  friends  and  co-workers; 

3.  They  lead  to  the  establishment  of  the  profession  of  teaching; 

4.  Opportunities  given  for  instructing  the  people  in  the  important  duties  they  are 
called  upon  to  discharge. 

It  is  also  worth  while  to  quote  from  an  editoriaP^  written  in  Nov. 
1852  by  Thomas  Burrowes  who  had  just  attended  the  Conemaugh 
Institute,  Indiana  County: 

But  when  this  number  of  young,  ardent,  intelligent  teachers  were  seen,  day  after 
day,  during  the  time  just  named,  submitting  themselves  to  instruction  with  all  the 
simplicity  of  little  children,  yet  all  the  noble  ardor  of  devotees  to  science,  the  spectacle 
assumed  a  degree  of  moral  beauty  not  often  witnessed,  and  presented  to  the  reflecting 
mind  the  Teachers'  Institute  in  its  true  light.  It  is,  in  fact,  the  very  agency  fitted  to  the 
educational  wants  of  Pennsylvania  in  the  present  emergency.  Among  its  advantages  may 
be  named:  The  association  of  the  teachers  in  the  same  county  with  each  other;  the 
professional  character;  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  in  the  art  of  teaching;  the  acquisi- 
tion of  knowledge  in  the  science  taught  in  the  schools;  and  the  power  of  mental  analysis. 

This  extract  of  an  early  editorial  on  institutes  by  one  of  Pennsylva- 
nia's educational  statesmen  epitomizes  the  various  objects  for  which 
institutes  existed  in  the  fifties — the  solving  of  the  dilemma  of 
untrained  teachers,  both  academically  and  professionally.  At  the 
same  time,  strange  as  it  may  seem,  Mr.  Burrowes  pointed  out  two 
possible  evils  of  institutes — (1)  "perversion  from  their  original  ob- 
jects by  book  agents,"  and  (2)  "new  and  doubtful  theory  in  education 
may  be  propagated!" 

'°  Travis,  Penna.  School  Journal,  Vol.  1,  1853. 
'^Burrowes,  Penna.  School  Journal,  Vol.  1,  1852,  Nov. 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  15 

To  illustrate  further  the  temporary  expediency  of  institutes  as 
then  regarded  we  may  quote  this  extract  from  the  resolutions^  in 
organizing  a  Teachers'  Institute  in  Lancaster  County  in  1852: 

Whereas,  In  the  absence  of  State  Normal  Schools  for  the  preparation  of  Teachers 
for  the  schools  of  the  State,  experience  has  shown  that  Teachers'  Institutes  are  the 
best  means  within  our  own  reach  for  mutual  improvement. 

This  Institute  was  held  for  one  week  in  January,  1853.  It  was  the 
direct  outgrowth  of  an  Educational  Association;  its  main  purpose  or 
aim  was  the  training  of  teachers  in  the  absence  of  better  facilities. 

Teachers'  Institutes  were  organized  in  Bucks  County  in  1855. 
This  appears  to  be  a  voluntary  association  as  may  be  inferred^*  from 
the  Preamble  to  the  Constitution: 

To  enlist  the  interest,  secure  the  inQuence,  and  promote  the  efficient  actions  of 
the  friends  of  education  in  Bucks  County;  in  improving  the  standard  of  the  Teachers' 
profession,  and  thus  promoting  educational  advancement;  we,  whose  names  are  here- 
unto appended,  resolve  ourselves  into  an  association  for  said  purpose  and  do  adopt 
the  following  Constitution,  etc.  .  .  . 

Here  again  we  see  that  it  was  the  creation  of  interest  in  education, 
just  as  it  was  in  organizing  the  Union  County  Institute  in  1855,  where 
we  read  that  "the  object  shall  be  to  engage  the  interest,  secure  the 
influence,  and  promote  the  advancement  of  Education."^* 

E.xamples  of  similar  expressions  from  many  counties  could  be 
indefinitely  multiplied.  There  is  little  doubt  that  propaganda 
for  better  educational  conditions  and  better  trained  teachers  were  the 
dominant  notes.  That  there  was  a  dire  need  of  well  trained  teachers 
can  be  shown  by  giving  a  few  illustrations  of  the  utter  hopelessness 
of  the  teacher  training  situation  from  1850  to  1860.  These  examples 
are  not  exaggerated,  but  selected  at  random  from  the  reports  of  the 
county  superintendents  from  1855  to  1860.  They  do,  however,  illus- 
trate the  serious  situation  out  of  which  partly  grew  the  necessity  for 
teachers'  institutes.  The  teachers  themselves  realized  this  situation, 
for  in  the  Lancaster  County  Institute  already  referred  to  (q.  v.)  a 
resolution'^  was  offered  by  J.  P.  Wickersham,  and  favorably  acted 
upon,  to  the  effect  that  the  county  supcrintendency  and  State 
Normal  Schools  be  established.     This  resolution,  unanimously  car- 

•*  Penna.  School  Journal,  Vol.  1,  1852. 

■  Doylestown  Daily  Intelligencer  F^iles,  1855. 

"State  Supt.  Report  1S77,  p.  3.^5. 

"  State  Supt.  Report,  1877,  p.  335. 


16  COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 

ried,  was  sent  to  the  State  Legislature.  At  the  second  meeting  of  this 
institute,  November  1854,  another  resolution  was  passed  as  follows:'* 

That  we  recommend  to  our  worthy  county  superintendent  the  propriety  of  calHng 
a  county  teachers'  institute,  to  continue  in  session  for  the  term  of  llirce  months. 

The  teachers  of  1854  evidently  did  not  regard  a  summer  school  of  12 
weeks  as  a  hardship.  This  institute  was  actually  held  in  the  summer 
of  1855  as  "The  Lancaster  County  Normal  Institute,"  at  Millers- 
ville,  in  the  buildings  of  the  Millersville  Academy.  This  institute 
later  became  "The  Lancaster  County  Normal  School,"  which  in  turn 
became  the  first  State  Normal  School  in  Pennsylvania,  with  J.  P. 
Wickersham  as  its  principal,  in  1859.^^ 

Examples  of  Qualifications  of  Teachers — From  Co.  Supt. 
Reports 

Allegheny  County — 1855^^ 

"With  regard  to  those  whom  I  was  compelled  to  reject,  but  Httle  need  be  said. 
Their  want  of  qualifications  can  be  best  inferred  from  the  following  MS.  Their 
attainments,  though  wonderful  indeed,  did  not  entitle  them  to  a  certificate,  even  of  a 
middling  grade. 

"Orthography — 'Watter,'  'speach,'  'bissy,'  'verr>^,'  'beaurrow,'  'grammer,' 
'arithmatic,'  'oshun,'  'lattitude,'  'Urope,'  'Wensday,'  'comicle,'  'parshal,'  'unherd,' 
'tence,'  'artiphaser,'  'propper,'  etc." 

"Definition  of  terms — Meridian?  'Half  round;'  'When  the  sun  shines  fare  at  1 
o'c.';  Grammar?— 'The  art  of  sience.'  Orthography? — 'Is  spelhn  and  speUin  is 
naming  the  letters.'    Evolution? — 'A  turnin  round.' 

"Geography — 'How  is  Pennsylvania  bounded?    Ans.  'I  don  no  how  bound.' 

"This  is  not  inserted  here  to  excite  laughter — rather  sympathy — but  simply 
to  exhibit  the  kind  of  teachers  that  have  doubtless  heretofore  been  employed.  Was 
it  any  wonder  that  our  schools  were  retrogressing?  That  parents  complained  and 
justly,  too,  of  the  little  or  no  advancement  made  by  their  children?  That  directors 
were  careless,  perhaps,  culpabl)'  negligent,  about  visiting  their  schools?" 

Lehigh  County— 1855^^ 

"The  strict  letter  of  the  law  would  have  compelled  me  to  reject  a  still  greater 
number,  but  under  the  circumstances  I  did  not  consider  it  a  policj',  though  the  charac- 
ter of  the  certificates  amounted  to  more  than  a  rejection.  I  will  mention  one  as  an 
illustration:  In  one  of  the  districts  where  the  compensation  for  teachers  is  not  very 
liberal,  I  was  requested  to  examine  a  young  man,  pronounced  by  those  who  had 
previously  employed  him,  and  who  desired  again  to  employ  him,  as  a  very  competent 
(!)  teacher.  After  having  spent  quite  a  long  time  in  endeavoring  to  ascertain  in 
what  branches  he  excelled,  I  gave  him  a  temporary  certificate,  with  every  branch 

^  State  Supt.  Report,  1855. 
»9  State  Report— 1867. 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  17 

erased  except  orthography,  reading,  and  elementary  principles  of  arithmetic,  with  a 
written  addition  below  of  'That  which  is  not  erased  the  holder  is  still  very  deficient  in.' 
The  applicant  was  much  pleased  with  his  certificate,  and  was  after\vards  emplo\'ed 
to  teach  the  best  school  in  the  district,  the  written  addition  below  being  taken  to  mean 
an  txlra  recommendation.  This,  however,  was  the  only  case  in  which  so  much  defi- 
ciency recicved  even  a  scrap  of  paper  from  me."  From  1856  report — "Turnty-six 
teachers  give  full  satisfaction,  sixty-two  may  be  called  medium,  and  employed  until 
better  ones  can  be  secured;  seventy-nine  would  belter  be  dismissed  from  the  service. 

Selected  Items  from  Report  of  A.  G.  Curtin,  Siipl.  of  Schools 

1857 

(Seven  years  after  establishing  of  Institutes) 

Experience  in  Teaching 

Thirty-four  (34)  counties  repwrt  the  number  of  teachers  who  have  taught  less 

than  one  year,  to  be 1,79.^        29% 

Who  have  taught  between  one  and  three  years 2,035         34% 

\\'ho  have  taught  between  three  and  si.x  years 612         10% 

Who  have  taught  between  ten  and  twenty  years 389  6% 

Who  have  taught  over  twenty  years 123  2% 

This  develops  the  large  amount  of  untrained  inexperience  under  which  the  pro- 
fession is  sufTering.  Out  of  six  thousand  teachers  reported  under  this  head,  nearly 
four  thousand  of  less  experience  than  three  years,  and  nearly  half  of  the  latter  number 
less  than  one  year;  and,  as  there  is  reason  to  know,  a  large  proportion  of  them  without 
the  special  preparation  for  the  work  which  is  essential  to  success.  If  the  public  schools 
are  not  every  where  prosperous,  is  not  the  reason  obvious;  and  does  not  the  public 
welfare  demand  a  timely  and  adequate  remedy? 

Educational  Reading 

The  number  of  teachers  in  forty-one  (41)  counties,  who  have  read  books  and 

periodicals  on  teaching,  and  other  educational  works  is 3,256 

Those  who  have  not 4, 1 80 

Permanent  Teachers 

Thirty-two  (i2)  counties  report  the  number  of  teachers  who  intend  to  make 

teaching  a  permanent  business,  to  be 2,735 

Those  who  do  not 3,049 

Many  of  the  former  class  arc  influenced  in  their  determination,  by  the  improving 
prospects  of  the  public  schools,  but  will  quit  the  business,  if  tfw  system  should  receive  any 
serious  check  at  this  stage  of  its  development,  atui  tlu-ir  Iwpcs  be  thus  disappointed.  If,  for 
instance,  the  protection  now  afforded  by  the  County  Superintendency  against  the 
inroads  of  the  incompetent  and  unworthy,  should  be  removed  they  would  feel  them- 
selves obliged  to  retire  from  the  unetjual  and  degrading  competition,  that  would  be  the 
immediate  anfl  inevitable  result. 

Many  of  the  latter  class  enter  the  school  room,  not  from  any  love  of  the  cause, 
or  desire  to  excel,  but  merely  to  secure  a  temp>orar>'  livelihood;  and  are  employed 
from  necessity,  not  choice. 


18  COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 

In  the  Report  of  1856  Supt.  Curtin  says: 

The  scarcity  of  competent  teachers  is  the  great  want  of  our  schools. 

Education  of  Teachers 

The  official  returns  on  this  point  are  meagre;  but  from  what  has  been  received, 
and  information  derived  from  other  sources,  it  may  be  safely  stated  that  noi  two  per 
pent,  of  the  whole  number  of  teachers  in  the  State  estimate,  are  graduates  of  colleges  or 
Normal  Schools.    This  does  not  include  Philadelphia. 

Not  twenty  per  cent  are  graduates  of  academies  or  private  seminaries. 

About  twenty-eight  per  cent  have  had  the  benefit  of  tuition  for  brief  periods,  in 
academies  and  private  schools. 

And  about  fifty  per  cent  have  received  their  entire  educational  training  in  the 
common  schools  of  their  respective  neighborhoods.  The  general  character  and  quality 
of  that  education  may  be  inferred  from  the  character  of  the  teachers  too  often  employed 
in  the  public  schools,  in  the  large  majority  of  districts,  prior  to  the  act  of  1854. 

Vast  improvement  has  been  made,  however,  in  the  last  two  years,  on  the  part  of 
teachers,  by  private  study,  and  attendance  upon  voluntary  teachers'  institutes;  under 
the  influence  of  County  Superintendents,  and  the  stimulus  of  the  graded  temporary 
certificate. 

QuaUficalmis  of  Teachers 
The  number  of  teachers  in  forty-three  (43)  counties,  who  give  full  satisfaction  in 

their  respective  grades,  is 2,370 

Those  who  may  be  called  medium  teachers,  and  may  be  employed  till  better  can 

be  procured 3,660 

The  number  whose  services  had  better  be  dispensed  with 2,005 

The  integrit}^  of  this  report  compels  the  statement,  that  these  unqualified  teachers 
are  tolerated  in  the  schools,  simply  because  their  places  cannot,  as  yet,  be  supplied 
with  such  as  are  competent;  and  to  reject  them,  would  be  to  close  the  schools  entirely. 
But  the  schools  are  not  as  bad  off  in  this  respect,  by  one-half,  as  they  were  two  years 
ago.  In  the  light  of  this  single  fact,  the  special  wants  of  the  system  and  the  reforma- 
tion already  accomplished,  can  be  seen  at  a  glance. 

In  1867  we  find  Supt.  Wickersham  making  the  statement^^  that, 
"the  qualifications  of  teachers  of  the  state  are  still  far  below  what 
they  ought  to  be.  This  is  shown  by  the  astonishing  fact  that  not  one- 
half  of  them  ever  read  a  single  book  on  the  subject  of  teaching." 
Again  in  his  report  for  1880^°  we  read  that,  "four-fifths  of  all  our 
teachers  to-day  have  made  little  special  preparation  for  their  work." 
It  was  also  in  this  report  that  Supt.  Wickersham  visioned  the  real 
problems  of  the  improvement  of  teachers  in  service  when  he  recom- 
mended "closer  supervision"  and  that  "to  bring  this  about  school 
districts  might  be  given  power  to  combine  for  the  purposes  of  super- 
vision." 

^o  State  Report— 1880. 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  19 

In  contrast  to  this  dark  situation,  a  ray  of  light  ai)pears  when  we 
examine  a  few  hopeful  reports  of  what  was  being  accomplished  thru 
the  newly  organized  institutes.  Such  examples  as  the  following  are 
typical  of  what  was  being  expected  from  institutes: 

In  the  absence  of  Normal  Schools,  I  know  of  no  plan  better  calculated  to  improve 
teachers,  and  enlist  parents  and  directors  in  the  great  Cause/* 

Tlie  Institute  has  done  a  great  work  for  our  teachers,  and  schools,  and  especially 
in  molding  public  sentiment.^- 

State  Supt.  Pligbee:" 

The  County  Institutes  are  growing  in  power  from  year  to  year.  Xo  factor  is  more 
important  or  ser\'iceable  in  the  way  of  awakening  and  deepening  interests  in  educa- 
tional alTairs. 

No  historical  resume  of  teachers'  institutes  in  Pennsylvania 
would  be  adequate,  nor  sufficiently  helpful  in  the  present  institute 
problem,  without  examining  the  expressions  of  Andrew  G.  Curtin, 
who  before  his  governorship,  held  the  dual  office  of  Secretary  of  the 
Commonwealth  and  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. 
Mr.  Curtin  has  in  his  reports  as  superintendent  given  a  clear  and 
specific  analysis  of  the  needs  of  education  in  his  day  and  of  the 
purpose  and  function  of  the  institute  in  those  critical  days  for  the 
common  schools.  Supt.  Curtin  always  advocated  the  improvement 
of  the  schools  of  the  state  by  the  establishing  of  State  Normal  Schools 
and  of  the  County  Superintendency.  These  two  agencies  were 
always  tied  up  with  the  institutes.  He  clearly  saw  that  underneath 
all  movements  for  educational  progress  was  public  opinion  and 
interest. 

The  teachers'  institutes  now  established  have  contributed  much  to  the  improve- 
ment of  teachers,  and  in  elevating  public  opinion  in  educational  interests." 

Continuing  in  this  same  report  he  said: 

It  is  due  to  the  community  that  all  prudent  measures  should  be  adopted  to 
inform  and  satisfy  this  grouping  public  sentiment,  as  well  as  directly  build  up  the  schools. 
Associated  effort  is  of  the  first  importance  to  the  success  of  all  educational  movements. 
.  .  .  The  tounly  institute  is  ufukniMy  the  most  available  present  means  for  the  accomp- 
lishment of  this  purpose;  and  a  vast  deal  of  good  has  resulted  from  voluntary  efforts  in  this 
direction  during  the  past  year. 

When  a  little  later  on  in  this  same  report  Mr.  Curtin  advocated  that 
institutes  should  be  under  "the  fostering  care"  of  the  public  treasury, 

*'  Stale  Report— 1885,  Beaver  County  Supt. 
"State  Report— 1877,  I^high  County  Supt.  for  1858. 
"  Report— 1882— P.  XIII. 
♦♦  Sute  Supt.  Report,  1855. 


20  COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 

he  called  them  "provisional  Normal  Schools,"  he  recognized  their 
work  and  their  temporary  character. 

Of  considerable  interest  is  this  extract  from  Mr.  Curtin's  report  in 
1857:« 

It  is  not  supposed  that  the  actual  amount  of  professional  scientific  knowledge 
carried  away  from  the  institutes  by  each  member  is  of  itself  ver>'  great,  or  that  it 
forms  the  chief  feature  of  its  usefulness.    This  is  but  a  secondar>'  consideration. 

Another,  and  by  no  means  the  least  beneficial  effect  of  the  institute,  is  the  public 
attention  it  attracts  to  the  whole  educational  movement:  and  the  means  for  assistance 
and  encouragement  it  affords  to  that  generous  portion  of  the  community  who  love 
the  schools,  thus  ministering  to  the  elevation  of  the  S3'^stem  in  its  most  material  points. 

In  this  same  report  in  connection  with  institutes,  Mr.  Curtin  stresses 
that  "the  institute  attaches  the  teacher  to  his  profession,  by  fostering 
that  esprit  de  corps  so  necessary  in  every  pursuit."  It  is,  therefore, 
not  a  difl&cult  matter  to  infer  that  in  Supt.  Curtin's  judgment  the 
actual  training  of  teachers  through  the  institute  was  a  secondary 
matter  to  that  public  revival  so  necessary  at  the  time  in  order  to 
drag  the  schools  out  of  the  slough  of  despond  into  which  they  had 
fallen.  It  is  of  peculiar  coincidence  that  at  least  in  another  state 
about  this  same  time  the  State  Superintendent  was  advocating 
institutes  on  this  same  ground.    Supt.  Edwards  of  IlHnois  said:^^ 

Teachers'  Institutes  are  becoming  one  of  the  most  important  means  of  advanc- 
ing the  common  school  interests  known  to  the  country.  They  serve  for  the  time  being 
nearly  all  the  purposes  of  a  well  conducted  normal  school,  and  are  equally  beneficial 
to  the  teachers  who  attend,  and  to  the  interests  of  the  cause  of  education  in  the  locahty 
in  which  they  are  held. 

Summary  of  Chapter 

1.  Institutes  were  established  to  meet  an  emergency  in  the  short- 
age of  adequately  trained  teachers. 

2.  There  is  no  evidence  to  show  that  they  should  be  anything  but 
temporary. 

3.  They  were  the  means  of  stimulating  public  interest  in  educa- 
tion. 

4.  Their  value  was  undoubtedly  considerable  not  only  in  stressing 
the  need  of  better  academic  and  professional  training,  but  in  opening 
up  the  way  for  the  founding  of  something  more  satisfactory  for  doing 
the  work  they  were  intended  to  do. 

5.  In  many  cases  institutes  were  the  outgrowth  of  educational 
associations. 

«  State  Supt.  Report,  1857. 

"  Report  of  the  Supt.  of  Public  Instruction,  Illinois,  Associations.      1855-56,  p.  18. 


CHAPTER  II 


Aims 


The  purpose  of  this  chapter  is  two  fold:  (1)  to  reveal,  as  well  as 
it  can  be  done,  what  may  be  generally  regarded  as  the  aims  of  teach- 
ers' institutes;  (2)  what  should  be  the  aims.  The  factors  that  will 
be  employed  in  determining  this  are  (1)  County  Superintendents; 
(2)  District  Superintendents;  (3)  Supervising  Principals;  (4)  Opinions 
from  various  State  Departments  of  Public  Instruction;  (5)  Teachers 
themselves;  and  (6)   Educational  Authorities. 

Historically,*  we  have  seen  that  the  aim  or  the  purpose  in  founding 
County  Institutes,  as  distinguished  from  District  and  Normal  Insti- 
tutes,^ was  at  least  four  fold:  (1)  The  training  of  the  very  poorly 
and  inadequately  prepared  teachers;  (2)  A  public  propaganda  in 
behalf  of  new  school  legislation,  especially  in  Pennsylvania,  where 
Normal  Schools  and  the  County  Superintendency  were  early  advo- 
cated through  the  institute;  (3)  Influencing  public  opinion  through 
the  arousal  of  an  educational  interest;  and  (4)  the  creation  and 
development  of  an  esprit  de  corps.  The  original  aim  was,  to  a  large 
extent,  the  professional  preparation  of  teachers,  even  though  it  was 
in  a  very  crude  way.  An  examination  of  the  data  furnished  in  Chap- 
ter I  on  "Historical  Origins"  and  the  Institute  Manuals  in  many 
states,  seems  to  support  this  aim,  even  within  comparatively  recent 
times.  "The  main  purpose  of  all  institute  work  is  to  develop  teaching 
and  training  power."'  Among  the  six  purposes  mentioned  in  the 
West  \'irginia  Manual  are: 

1.  To  atTonl  an  opportunity  for  teachers  to  secure  such  insight  into  propwr 
mcthwls  as  will  make  it  jx)ssible  for  them  to  teach  with  more  case  and  pleasure  to 
themselves  and  more  fruitful  results  for  pupils. 

2.  To  give  definite  instruction  in  affairs  of  school  administration,  that  will 
assist  the  teachers  in  the  proper  solution  of  any  difTiculties  that  may  arise  in  the 
actual  work  from  day  to  day. 

'  Chapter  I — Historic  Origins. 

'  Institute  in  this  study  refers  to  county  institute,  five  days,  unless  otherwise 
specified. 

'  Kentucky  Manual  on  Institutes,  1910. 

21 


22  COUNTY  teachers'  institutes  in  PENNSYLVANIA 

The  Indiana  Manual  says,  "Briefly,  it  seems  that  the  functions  of  the 
institute  are  two  in  number — the  m^eeting  of  the  immediate  practical 
needs  of  the  teachers,  and  the  giving  of  inspiration."  This  same 
state's  manual  also  adds  the  following:  "Academic  instruction,  help 
in  school  organization  and  in  the  mechanics  of  the  recitation,  promo- 
tion of  sociability  and  good  will  among  teachers,  .  .  .  helping  in 
methods  of  teaching  particular  subjects,  giving  deeper  insight  into 
the  principles  of  education  .  .  .  etc."  Supt.  Bateman,  Illinois 
1859-63  has  summed  the  advantages  or  aims  of  teachers'  institutes 
fully:'' 

Professional  knowledge  and  insight, 

Help  in  specific  difiiculties, 

The  proper  discipline  of  schools, 

Quickening  of  the  professional  esprit  du  corps, 

Social  acquaintance  and  friendship, 

Community  benefits: 

(1)  Public  is  aroused  to  the  importance  of  education. 

(2)  True  educational  standards  are  set  before  the  public. 

(3)  Mutual  confidence  and  good  understanding  are  estabUshed  between  the 
people  and  school  officers  and  teachers. 

While  these  are  set  down  as  benefits,  they  are  a  fair  indication  of  the 
underlying  aim,  comprehensive,  but  doubtful  of  fulfillment  as  will  be 
revealed  in  another  chapter. 

The  Educational  Commission  of  the  State  of  Illinois,  appointed  in 
1907,  issued  in  Bulletin  No.  5  a  comprehensive  report  on  Teachers' 
Institutes,  exclusively.  The  aim  of  the  institute  as  formulated  by  this 
commission  of  expert  educators  is  worth  quoting,  even  though  their 
recommendations  in  the  matter  of  Teachers'  Institutes  were  not 
adopted  by  the  Legislature  :5 

The  main  purpose  of  the  institute  is  to  stimulate  the  desire  of  teachers  for  pro- 
fessional excellence  so  that  they  will  be  impelled  to  increase  their  professional  knowl- 
edge and  skill  in  schools  primarily  established  for  thai  purpose.  The  chief  emphasis 
must,  therefore,  be  laid  upon  developing  in  the  minds  of  those  who  attend  the  institute, 
true  conceptions  in  regard  to  the  science  and  art  of  education  and  the  dignity  and 
nobility  of  the  work  of  the  teacher;  upon  inciting  in  the  teacher,  and  the  public  gen- 
erally, an  enthusiasm  for  education;  upon  promoting  professional  esprit  du  corps  which 
will  raise  to  the  maximum  the  practical  efficiency  of  the  teachers  of  the  county. 

This  whole  aim  can  be  summed  up  in  one  phrase — ^"professional 
zeal." 

*  Ruediger,  Op.  Cit.,  p.  29. 

5  Illinois  School  Report,  1908-10,  p.  420. 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  23 

It  is  not  within  the  scope  of  this  inv^estigation  to  analyze  or  to 
determine  the  underlying  legal  aims  of  institutes  as  revealed  by  the 
statutes  authorizing  teachers  institutes  in  the  various  states,  even 
though  the  aims  were  stated.  In  the  School  Law  of  Pennsylvania, 
this  aim  is  pretty  definitely  set  up.  Teachers'  Institutes  in  this  state 
were  legalized  by  the  Act  of  April  9,  1867.  The  aim  as  the  law 
contemplated  it  is: 

"The  county  superintendent  of  each  county  in  this  Commonwealth  is  hereby  author- 
ized and  required  once  in  each  year — to  call  upon  and  invite  the  teachers  of  the  com- 
mon schools,  and  other  institutions  of  learning  in  his  county,  to  assemljle  together  and 
organize  themselves  into  a  teachers'  institute,  to  be  devoted  to  the  improvement  of 
teachers  in  the  science  and  art  of  education  to  continue  in  session  at  least  five  days, 
etc." 

The  school  law  of  1911  made  no  change  whatever  in  the  expression  of 
this  aim,  except  to  add  ^'history  of  educatioti^'  to  the  "science  and  art  of 
education.''  This  aim  is  very  broad  and  can  include  anything.  One 
thing  is  certain — the  act  seems  to  indicate  that  the  main  object  is 
"the  improvement  of  teachers,''  in  other  words  a  very  clear  mandate  that 
teachers  must  improve  while  in  service.  The  institute  was  organized, 
therefore,  not  to  train  those  who  were  not  teachers,  but  to  improve 
these  who  were  teachers.  This  distinction  must  be  borne  in  mind. 
It  is  fundamental,  a  difference  between  training  and  improvement. 
It  is  the  key  to  any  aim  that  may  be  set  up  for  present  day  institutes. 
It  is  very  trite  to  say  that  the  aim  of  education  has  changed  with 
new  needs  and  new  conditions.  The  aim  set  up  for  education  in 
the  eighteenth  century  would  not  suffice  for  the  twentieth.  The 
educational  aim  has  been  evolved  in  a  progressive  way.  In  the  evolu- 
tion of  our  public  school  system  in  this  country  the  various  aims 
have  changed  to  meet  certain  well  known  and  felt  needs.  It  is 
doubtful  whether  the  aims  and  functions  of  teachers'  institutes, 
organized  for  certain  specific  conditions  and  needs,  eighty-two  years 
ago,  have  changed  materially,  if  very  little.  If  Henry  Barnard, 
Horace  Mann,  or  Supt.  A.  G.  Curtin  were  quoted,  giving  the  aims  of 
teachers'  institutes  as  they  understood  them  in  their  own  day,  there 
would  be  essentially  no  difference  between  those  aims  and  those 
already  quoted.  In  fact,  all  the  aims  quoted  up  to  the  present  stage 
of  our  study  can  be  distilled  into  one  or  two  well-known  and  general 
phrases — "professional  zeal,"  "esprit  de  corps,"  and  "inspiration." 
We  shall  now  compare  these  historic  aims  with  those  of  the  present 
time. 


24  COUNTY  teachers'  institutes  in  PENNSYLVANIA 

Aims  as  Reported  by  County  Superintendents 

In  February  1919  a  comprehensive  questionnaire  bearing  on 
"The  Status  of  County  Teachers'  Institutes  in  Pennsylvania"  was 
submitted  to  all  the  county  superintendents  in  Penna.  (This  ques- 
tionnaire is  reproduced  in  the  Appendix.)  Two  questions,  Nos. 
14  and  21  had  an  indirect  and  also  direct  bearing  on  the  aims  and 
purposes  of  the  Institute.  This  questionnaire  was  answered  by  65 
of  the  66  county  superintendents.  These  two  questions  were 
answered  fully.  The  following  table  summarizes  the  results  of  this 
question: 

Table  I — Ways  in  Which  Institutes  May  Help  Teachers 

(Aims) 

Ranks  or  Preferences 

Ways  First    Second    Third     Fourth       Fifth 


a.  Subject  Matter 3 

b.  Methods  of  Teaching 15 

c.  Professional  Inspiration 46 

d.  Better  discipline  in  rural  schools 4 

e.  Impetus  to  prof,  by  teachers 7 

f .  Social  contacts 6 

g.  Exchange  of  Ideas 2 

h.  Community  UpUf t 6 

i.  Opportunity  to  meet  supts.  and  teachers.  2 

j.  Discussion  of  immediate  school  problem. .  4 


County  Superintendents  in  Pennsylvania  according  to  the  above 
responses  would  choose  in  their  order  the  following  as  the  chief 
aims  of  the  county  institute: 

First — Professional  Inspiration,  46  first  choice 

Second — Methods  of  Teaching,  15  first  choice 

Third — Impetus  to  Prof.  Reading,  7  first  choice  (A  poor  third) 

If  a  system  of  weighting^  to  choices  were  adopted,  allowing  first 
choice  three  points,  second  two,  third  one,  this  order  of  chief  aims 
would  not  be  affected.     When  carefully  analyzed,  we  find  that  46, 

^  This  system  of  weighting  is  merely  arbitrarj'.  No  defense  for  it  is  offered. 
It  is  used  merely  to  reduce  to  common  units.  It  does  not  in  any  way  affect  the  validity 
of  the  results. 


2 

6 

3 

11 

15 

6 

6 

5 

4 

1 

2 

2 

5 

13 

7 

2 

7 

12 

9 

12 

17 

4 

0 

5 

12 

14 

7 

4 

7 

9 

5 

8 

7 

6 

6 

12 

8 

8 

9 

4 

COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  25 

or  nearly  50  per  ct.  of  all  first  choices  were  for  professional  inspira- 
tion, 15,  or  about  16  per  cent.,  methods,  while  the  others  were 
scattered  mainly  among  items  marked  "e,"  "f,"  and  "h." 
These  three  main  aims  are  well  maintained  in  the  nature  of  the 
replies  to  question  No.  24  (q.v.),  which  required  a  specific  answer  as 
to  aim.  The  question  was  "What  do  you  regard  as  the  aim  or 
purpose  of  institutes  as  at  present  organized  and  conducted?" 
Fifty-four  county  superintendents  answered  this  question.  Briefly 
summarized,  these  replies  are: 

(First  Choice) 

Professional  Inspiration 39 

Methods  of  Instniction 25 

Wider  professional  Reading 6 

Social  Contacts 12 

Discussion  immediate  school  Problems 6 

Esprit  de  Corps 6 

Higher  ideals .1 

New  Movements  in  Education 1 

Entertainment 1 

It  will  be  noticed  that  there  are  97  choices.  Some  gave  several 
choices.  In  both  questions — 14  and  24 — there  is  an  agreement  as  to 
what  the  county  superintendents  regard  as  the  chief  aims  of  the 
institute — professional  inspiration  and  methods  of  instriiction.  It  is 
a  coincident,  as  will  be  noticed  in  Chapter  IV  "Analysis  of  Institute 
Programs"  that  the  materials  classified  as  "General"  and  Specific" 
agree  closely  in  per  cent  with  these  two  aims  as  indicated  by  the  per 
centum  of  preferences.  It  is  rather  curious  that  the  county  superin- 
tendents in  ranking  aims  and  in  giving  aims  in  the  two  inquiries 
made,  hardly  indicate  or  even  intimate  that  some  valuable  aims  of  the 
Institute  might  be  such  items  as  "the  discussion  of  immediate  school 
problems,"  "professional  solidarity,"  "e.xchanging  of  ideas  among 
teachers,"  "social  contacts,"  or,  indeed,  "new  movements  in  educa- 
tion." A  few  typical  expressions  of  what  county  superintendents 
regard  as  the  "aim  and  purpose  of  the  institute"  are  selected  and 
given  here. 

AIM  AND  PURPOSE  OF  INSTITUTE 

(F^.xtracts  from  County  Superintendents'  Replies) 

''They  inspire  the  teachers  and  give  help  along  practical  lines." 
"Methods  in  a  measure,  but  inspirational  ncver-the-less." 
"To  inspire;  to  train;  to  check  the  approach  to  the  dead  lines." 


26  COUNTY  teachers'  institutes  in  PENNSYLVANIA 

"To  lead  all  teachers  to  an  appreciation  of  the  higher  ideals  of  the  teachers, 
information  for  the  beginner,  method  for  the  weak,  inspiration  for  the  despondent, 
correction  for  the  superficial,  and  justification  for  the  earnest  and  faithful." 

"To  increase  the  eii&ciency  of  the  teachers." 

"Inspiration,  morale,  uplift,  vision,  and  social  contact." 

"You  ask  so  many  questions  that  can  have  but  answer,  inspiration." 

".Assistance  in  methods,  encouragement  and  inspiration." 

"To  inspire,  enthuse  and  awaken." 

"A  county  convention  of  teachers,  or  school  rally  for  the  cultivation  of  professional 
consciousness,  to  get  renewed  inspiration  a  study  of  big  pubUc  questions,  the  promo- 
tion of  educational  propaganda  and  a  brief  course  in  methods — especially  in  new  devel- 
opments in  methods,  the  promotion  of  professional  reading  and  bringing  the  classroom 
teacher  into  contact  with  agents,  for  educational  journals,  booklets  and  de\'ices." 

"Professional  inspiration  and  fraternal  consciousness.  To  create  a  wholesome 
public  attitude.    (Newspapers)" 

"To  put  the  pubhc  educational  interests  upon  a  sounder  and  better  foundation 
and  better  enable  them  to  meet  the  purposes  for  which  they  are  established." 

"Largely  inspirational;  some  method;  building  higher  ideals." 

"They  instruct,  entertain,  and  inspire." 

"Largely  incentive." 

"Professional  inspiration,  and  a  social  uplift  to  some." 

"To  aid  the  State  Department  in  advancing  educational  program.  Bettering 
school  conditions — broadening  horizon." 

"To  inspire  the  teachers  to  best  effort." 

"To  give  inspiration,  to  give  pedagogical  instruction,  to  secure  unity  of  purpose  in 
the  teaching  corps,  to  exchange  experiences  and  ideas." 

"Professional  inspiration,  opportunity  for  teachers  to  meet  in  conferences  to  dis- 
cuss School  problems." 

"Professional  inspiration,  better  methods,  and  to  be  allied  professionally." 

"Inspiration.  To  me  it  seems  to  be  out  of  the  question  to  organize  a  'university' 
or  even  a  school  of  methods  for  a  five  day  term  of  instruction.  The  County  institute 
is  a  'get  together'  meeting  of  teachers  of  inspiration,  discussion,  comparison  of  ideas, 
etc." 

"Give  professional  inspiration.    Instruct  in  methods  and  management." 

"Making  the  county  system  of  schools  more  unified." 

"To  give  teachers  a  vision  of  their  work,  to  oft'er  methods  of  instruction,  to  broaden 
their  views  educationally,  etc." 

"Professional  inspiration  helps  in  solving  practically  all  school  problems." 

District  Superintendents 

The  same  questionnaire  was  submitted  to  district  superintendents 
and  a  number  of  supervising  principals  in  the  state.  In  all  103 
answered  the  questionnaire.  Questions  14  and  24  (q.v.)  bearing  on 
the  aims  and  functions  of  the  institute  were  fully  answered.  Table 
2  gives  the  preferences  of  ways  in  which  the  institute  may  help 
teachers. 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  27 

i  AHi  K  II  —Ways  in  Which  Institute  May  Hklp  Teachers 

(Aims) 
District  Superintendents  (93) 
Supervising  Principals       ( 10) 

Rank  or  Preference 

Ways  First    Sccomi     Third     I'ourth        Fifth 

a.  Subject  matter 6  10  5  4  10 

b.  Methods 21  17  11  10  5 

c.  Prof.  Inspiration 35  15  6  3  9 

d.  Better  Discipline 1  3  3  3  6 

e.  Reading 4  14  11  5  17 

f.  Social  Contacts 6  10  10  y  6 

g.  Kxchange  Ideas 10  7  20  11  7 

h.  Community  Uplift 2  13  8  5  4 

i.  Immediate  Problem 11  4  8  13  7 

j.  Opportunity  to  meet  superintendent 5  5  4  13  10 

101  98  86  76  81 

The  following  table  of  summaries  to  question  14  reveals  that  the 
five  chief  aims  of  the  institute  in  the  judgment  of  these  supervisory 
officials  are: 

1.  Professional  inspiration,  35  first  choice 

2.  Methods,  21  first  choice 

3.  Discussion  of  Immediate, 

School  Problems,  1 1  first  choice 

4.  Exchange  of  ideas,  10  first  choice 

5.  Social  contacts,  6  first  choice 

It  is  evident  that  the  county  superintendents  and  the  district 
superintendents  agree  in  their  selection  of  aims  as  far  as  the  first  two 
aims  are  concerned,  professional  inspiration,  and  methods.  The  dis- 
trict superintendents  would  add  the  discussion  of  immediate  school 
problems  as  the  third  aim.  The  weighting  of  these  rankings  by  the 
same  method  by  which  the  rankings  of  the  county  superintendents 
was  made  will  not  change  the  order  of  preferred  aims  or  puqjoses. 
It  is  clear,  however,  that  while  fifty  per  cent  of  the  first  choice  of  the 
county  officials  is  professional  inspiration,  that  of  the  district  super- 
intendents for  the  same  aim  is  only  33  per  cent.  The  district  superin- 
tendents would  allow  20  per  cent  of  first  choice  to  methods,  against 
the  county  superintendents'  12  per  cent. 


28  COrXTY  teachers'  institutes  in  PENNSYLVANIA 

The  replies  of  the  district  superintendents  to  question  24  on  aim 
can  be  determined  by  giving  a  few  typical  replies  from  the  70  given. 
It  is  manifest  that  some  of  these  aims  are  more  or  less  sarcastic  expres- 
sions and  indicate  that  they  think  there  is  a  lack  of  any  specific  aim. 

Aim  and  Purpose  of  Institute 

"Entertainment  rather  than  instruction." 

"To  dignify  and  uphft  the  teachers  thru  instruction  in  importance  of  work  and 
philosophy  of  education,  school  work  and  problems  with  suggested  solutions,  to  give 
inspiration." 

"Improvement  of  the  teacher." 

"Inspiration." 

"The)'  serve  chiefly  as  a  means  for  the  county  superintendent  to  reach  his  teachers 
with  instructions,  information,  etc." 

"Hard  to  define.  Presumably  to  improve  teaching.  Greatest  value,  the  inspira- 
tion." 

"I  have  not  been  able  to  discover  the  aim." 

"CompHance  with  law.    Professional  inspiration  and  social  contact." 

"Entertainment  for  the  average  county  institute;  no  real  aim." 

"To  continue  the  traditions  of  the  school  system." 

"Carrj-ing  out  the  law  in  one  way  or  another.  Great  variety  of  interpretation  of 
the  law.  We  had  10  sessions.  Some  have  only  eight  and  count  it  ten.  Of  course,  the 
supposed  aim  is  betterment  of  teacher." 

".\ncient  custom;  part  of  law.  Some  gentlemen  of  influence  draw  paj-  as  instruc- 
tors." 

"Inspiration,  rarely  anything  else." 

"To  serve  as  a  camouflage;  to  fool  the  people;  to  aid  county  superintendents  in 
gaining  desired  ends." 

"I  don't  think  there  is  any  aim  or  purpose  e.xcept  a  blind  antiquated  fulfilling  of 
the  school  code." 

"To  instruct  and  to  give  teacher  professional  inspiration." 

".\id  inexperienced  teachers.  Enthuse  all  teachers  with  greater  desire  for  welfare 
of  children." 

"Improvement  of  method.  Give  inspiration  to  teachers  and  develop  professional 
spirit." 

"To  be  of  inspirational  ajid  specific  help  to  new  and  old  teachers." 

"The  promotion  of  good  will  among  teachers  and  of  professional  inspiration." 

"Inspiration,  development  of  professional  spirit,  and  instruction  in  methods." 

"Inspiration  and  instruction  of  rural,  one  room  teachers." 

"Improvement  of  teachers." 

"To  broaden  the  viewpoint  of  the  teacher  and  enable  her  to  realize  her  possibili- 
ties." 

"Professional  improvement;  better  methods,  for  an  appreciation  of  higher  spiritual 
values." 

"A  compliance  with  the  Code  on  the  part  of  the  average  teacher.  A  means  of 
earning  additional  money  of  the  part  of  the  average  lecturer." 

"Inspiration,  methods,  encouragement." 


COUNTY  teachers'  institutes  in  PENNSYLVANIA  29 

"Really  it  would  appear  from  most  of  the  programs  that  tliey  were  being  held 
to  comply  with  the  law.  I  feel  that  the  real  puriwse  is  to  improve  the  sdiools  and  assist 
teachers.  The  weakness  of  the  whole  system  is  that  there  is  no  well  defined  consensus 
of  either  opinion  or  action  in  the  preparation  of  programs.    Personal  opinion  decides." 

"The  aim  is  to  bring  before  all  teachers  the  new  movements.  The  big  movements 
and  purposes  of  your  own  system." 

"Teach  teachers  how  to  teach  school." 

"To  help  in  removing  the  weak  places  in  school  work.  Thru  exhibitions  of  the 
best  regular  school  work,  to  instruct,  stimulate  and  inspire  teachers,  and  at  the  same 
time  to  win  tlie  sympathy,  appreciation,  and  co-operation." 

"Means  of  hearing  big  men,  means  of  getting  together,  practical  problems  worked 
out." 

A  summary  of  these  replies  show  that  31  think,  "inspiration" 
is  the  aim;  8  "methods  of  teaching";  8  "instructions  in  subject  mat- 
ter"; 3  entertainment;  3  improvement  of  teachers;  2  that  they  serve 
the  county  superintendents'  purposes;  5  that  the  aim  is  traditional 
or  meant  to  carry  out  the  law;  4  say  there  is  no  aim. 

Aim  as  Revealed  by  Principals,  Supervising  Principals 

Two  hundred  out  of  368  supervising  principals  and  principals  to 
whom  a  questionnaire  (q.v.  in  appendix)  was  sent  answered  it.  One 
of  the  questions  bore  indirectly  on  the  present  aim  of  the  institute 
program,  which  should  reveal  the  aim  of  the  institute.  The  summary 
of  the  replies  to  question  No.  2  is: 

Professional  spirit  (first  choice)  140 

Understanding  new  movements  in  education  131 

Methods  of  teaching  79 

Impetus  for  professional  reading  75 

Too  much  stress  cannot  be  placed  on  this  information  since  the  ques- 
tion asked  for  the  ways  in  which  the  institute  actually  functioned  as 
an  agency  in  training  teachers  in  service.  The  answers,  there  is  rea- 
son to  think,  are  rather  father  to  the  wish,  for  an  analysis  of  the  pro- 
grams of  this  same  year  (see  Chapter  IV)  does  not  support  the  above 
information.  However,  the  replies  do  indicate  that  these  minor 
supervisory  ofTicial  also  regard  "professional  spirit"  as  a  major  aim 
of  the  present  day  institute,  thus  agreeing  with  county  superintend- 
ents and  the  district  superintendents,  many  of  the  latter  also  answer- 
ing this  same  inquiry. 

Aims  as  Revealed  Through  Teachers'  Judgments 

In  the  later  questionnaires  submitted  to  teachers  in  four  third 
class  districts  and  two  counties  and  to  a  group  of  teachers  at  State 


30  COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 

College  in  the  summer  session  of  1921,  representing  nearly  every 
county  in  the  State,  were  questions  on  the  present  and  ideal  aims. 
In  all  682  teachers  answered  the  two  questions  bearing  on  the  Present 
and  Ideal  aim.  The  question  bearing  on  the  present  aim  was  as 
follows: 

Check  in  blank  spaces  the  three  most  valuable  contributions  to  the  teacher  actually 
made  by  the  institute,  using  numeral  1  for  the  most  valuable  contribution,  2  for  the  sec- 
ond, 3  for  the  third. 

The  summary  of  answers  to  the  first,  second,  and  third  choices  to 
this  question  is: 

First  Choice — group  exclusive  State  College 

Professional  inspiration 170 

Methods  of  Teaching 64 

Subject  Matter 45 

Second  Choice — group  exclusive  State  College 

Professional  Inspiration 107 

Methods  of  Teaching 98 

Discussion  of  Immediate  School  Problems 79 

Exchange  of  Ideas 67 

Third  Choice — group  exclusive  State  College 

Discussion  of  Immediate  School  Problems 89 

Exchange  of  Ideas  among  Teachers 73 

Methods  of  Teaching 63 

Social  Contacts 57 

It  is  very  evident  that  this  group  of  teachers  places  professional 
inspiration  and  methods  oj  teaching  as  the  dominant  present  aims  of 
institutes,  with  a  smattering  of  preferences  for  the  discussion  of 
immediate  school  problems  and  exchange  of  ideas. 

The  State  College  group  (132  in  all)  is  given  separately  because  it  was  a  selected 
group  attending  summer  school  and  probably  influenced  by  this  fact.  Their  first 
choices  are  as  follows: — Professional  inspiration,  59;  methods  of  teaching,  21;  dis- 
cussion of  imm>.diate  school  problems,  16;  knowledge  of  subject  matter,  11;  exchange 
of  ideas,  15;  conference  with  county  superintendent  and  social  contacts,  each  5. 

The  judgment  of  this  small  group  should  be  of  considerable  value  in 
that  they  were  a  group  bent  on  improvement  and,  no  doubt,  appre- 
ciated the  significant  contribution  of  any  agency  to  improve  teachers. 
It  is  clear  that  the  judgment  of  this  selected  group  places  "profes- 
sional inspiration"  by  far  the  most  dominant  present  aim,  with  very 
little  assignments  to  methods  or  discussion  of  school  problems. 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 


31 


Ideal  Aim  as  Revealed  Through  Teachers'  Judgments 
Before  giving  the  results  of  the  answers  of  2300  teachers  to  this 
same  question  on  a  questionnaire,  that  did  not  have  the  ciucstion — 
No.  12 — bearing  on  the  ideal  aim,  we  shall  examine  the  summary  of 
the  replies  to  this  question  of  what  the  aim  should  be: 

Mark  1  for  what  you  lliinh  should  be  the  most  valuable  feature  of  the  institute, 
2  for  second,  i  for  third,    (q.  v.  appendix) 

This  question  was  answered  by  450  teachers  in  the  districts  and 
counties  as  already  mentioned  and  by  132  teachers  at  State  College 
summer  session,  1921.    The  summary  is  as  follows: 

First  Choice  (450)  exclusive  State  College  group 

Methods  of  Teaching 193 

Professional  Inspiration 146 

New  Movements  in  Education 65 

Subject  Matter 29 

Exchange  of  Ideas 28 

Discussion  Immediate  School  Problems 13 

Social  Contacts 13 

Second  Choice — (450)  exclusive  Stale  College  group 

New  Movements  in  Education 116 

Professional  Spirit 91 

Exchange  of  Ideas 90 

Metho<ls  of  Teaching 92 

Subject  Matter 48 

Discussion  Immediate  School  Problems 19 

Social  Contacts 19 

Third  Choice — (450)  exclusive  State  College  group 

New  Movements  in  Education 131 

Methods  of  Teaching 73 

Exchange  of  Ideas 73 

Professional  Spirit 6.^ 

Subject  Matter 60 

Discussion  Immediate  School  Problems 14 

Social  Contacts 38 

The  summary  of  replies  of  the  State  College  group  is: 

Weighted 
Points 


Development  of  professional  s[)irit 

Methods  of  Teaching 

Explanation  of  New  Movements 

Exchange  of  Ideas 

Discussion  Immediate  School  Problems 

Knowledge  Subject  Matter 

Social  Contacts 


First 

Second 

Third 

41 

23 

20 

37 

25 

15 

24 

39 

10 

13 

16 

26 

9 

39 

37 

6 

7 

11 

2 

6 

10 

189 

176 

160 

97 

142 

43 

2S 


32 


COUNTY  TEACHERS    INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 


Combining  these  two  groups  that  had  the  opportunity  of  answering 
both  questions,  one  on  the  present  aim  as  revealed  thru  the  Insti- 
tute's contribution,  and  one  on  what  the  most  valuable  feature  should 
be,  we  have  the  following  result  of  first  choices  for  ideal  aim: 

Methods  of  Teaching 230 

Professional  Inspiration 187 

Explanation  New  Movements  in  Education 89 

In  the  table  given  below  we  have  combined  the  first  choices  for  what 
may  be  regarded  as  the  presetit  aim  and  the  ideal  aim,  as  represented 
by  the  replies  of  the  two  groups  just  discussed,  or  582  replies  in  all: 
Table  III — Contrast  Preferences  for  Aims 


Items  or  Aims 

Present  Aim 
First  Choice 

First 

Ideal 

Aim 

Second 

Third 

Weighted 
Points 

Professional  Inspiration 

Methods  of  Teaching 

229 

153 

80 

56 

45 
15 
14 

187 
230 
22 
35 
89 
41 
15 

114 

117 

58 

55 

155 

106 

25 

80 
86 
75 
71 
141 
50 
50 

869 
1010 

Discussion  Immediate  School  Problems. .  . 
Subject  Matter 

257 
286 

Explanation  new  Movements  in  Education 
Exchange  of  Ideas 

718 
434 

Social  Contacts 

145 

Conference  Opportunities" 

In  Table  III  no  consideration  is  given  to  the  second  and  third  choices 
which  in  a  strictly  scientific  study  should  be  taken  account  of.  Giv- 
ing the  first,  second,  and  third  choices  of  ideal  aims  a  weighting  of 
three  (3)  points  for  first  choice,  two  (2)  for  second,  and  one  (1)  for 
third  choice,  the  results  are  not  materially  affected  so  far  as  the  order 
is  concerned.  These  weighted  choices  are  as  follows  and  can  be  used 
as  considerable  assistance  in  arriving  at  a  composite  aim: 

Table  IV — Weighted  Choices — Three  Aims 


Aim 


Present 


Ideal 


Professional  Inspiration 831  718 

Methods  of  Teaching 739  863 

Discussion  School  Problems 455 

Explanation  New  Movements 466 

^  Item  not  included  in  Question  No.  9.  We  would  expect  ver>'  little  preference 
of  contribution  under  this  question  since  only  14%  of  the  programs  were  devoted 
to  what  might  be  called  "new  movements."  See  Chapter  12  on  "The  Institute  Pro- 
gram." 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 


33 


Before  attempting  to  interpret  Table  IV  we  shall  give  the  result 
of  the  replies  of  200  district  superintendents,  supervising  principals 
and  principals  to  the  same  inquiry  as  to  "what  should  be  the  most 
valuable  feature  of  the  Institute."  (Question  5  in  Questionnaire 
"c,"  q.v.  in  Appendix.) 

Table   V — Ideal   .Vim   as    Revealed   by   200   Supervisory   Officl\ls 


Aims 


First 

Second 

64 

22 

63 

45 

3 

5 

19 

44 

3 

18 

32 

47 

19 

21 

Third 


Wt.  Points 


Methods  of  Teaching 

Development  of  Professional  Spirit 

Knowledge  Subject  Matter 

Exchange  of  Ideas 

Social  Contacts  among  Teachers 

Explanation  New  Movements  in  Education 
Discussion  School  Problems 


15 
26 
9 
35 
18 
51 
34 


251 
305 

28 
161 

63 
241 
114 


Table  VI  (a) — Table  For  Question  9. — Part  i 


County 

(a)  Knowledge 
of  Subject 
Matter 

(b)  Methods 
of  Teaching 

(c)  Prof.  I 
spiration 

n- 

Conference 
with  Co. 

Supt. 

I       II 

III 

I 

II 

III 

I 

II 

III 

I       II     III 

Berks 

Bucks 

25       21 

21       40 

9        6 

29       11 

3  7 
9        2 

61        8 
61       18 
10        6 

4  4 
3         1 

43      46 

32 
35 
10 
22 

5 
19 
22 
18 
15 

2 

3 
24 

114 
75 
54 
74 
18 
42 

129 
68 
32 
13 
10 
48 

7S 
114 
26 
59 
18 
29 
74 
75 
14 
14 
11 
78 

31 
45 
24 
27 
14 
13 
3S 
23 
11 

s 

12 
46 

91 
50 
50 
83 
48 
50 
158 
118 
37 
26 
45 
57 

67 
47 
27 
49 
21 
19 
77 
53 
16 
6 
7 
43 

22 

26 

28 

6 

13 

48 

48 

9 

7 

7 

23 

2       18       10 
1         5         8 

Chester 

1         3         6 

Clearfield 

6       11       14 

Delaware 

1         2         4 

Monroe 

2         2 

Montgomery 

Northami^ton 

21       55       60 

Northumberland 

Perr>' 

3         2         4 
1         2 

Susquehanna 

Westmoreland 

1                   3 
4                  3 

278     170 

207 

677 

590 

292 

813 

432 

270 

40     107     116 

Abington 

3        5 
2        3 
1 

2 

1 
1 
3 
5 

15 
2 
7 
2 

11 
3 
7 
4 

10 
1 

7 
7 

18 
8 
8 

16 

17 
3 

13 
9 

7 

2 
2 

1         1 

Beaver 

2 

Kane 

Ixxk  Haven 

6      10 

10 

26 

25 

25 

50 

42 

11 

3        1 

Total 

284     180 

217 

703 

615 

317 

S6.S 

474 

281 

40     110     117 

34 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 


Question  No.  9 — "What  do  you  regard  as  the  most  valuable 
contributions  to  the  teacher  actually  made  by  the  Institute,"  while 
not  bearing  directly  on  the  aim,  does  give  some  revelation  of  the 
present  working  aim  as  revealed  by  the  actual  work  of  the  Institute 
as  judged  by  teachers  who  attend  the  Institute.  In  all  2305  teachers 
answered  this  question.  Table  VI  below  gives  the  results  with  first, 
second,  and  third  preferences. 

Table  VI — (b) — Table  for  Question  9 — Part  II 


County 

Exchange  of 
Ideas 

I     II       III 

Discussion  of 
School  Prob- 
lems 
I       II     III 

Social  Contacts 
for  Teachers 

I       II     III 

Berks 

18 

6 

27 

10 

8 

3 

23 

17 

3 

6 

4 

10 

70      60 
62      71 
48      21 
22      30 
12      15 

20  12 
70      88 
59      67 
28      14 
16      11 

21  17 
34      38 

21       65      78 
23      76      97 
20      44      42 
26      43      54 

6  20      22 
10      25       28 
44      83     106 

7  13      43 
12       14       12 

6  8        9 

7  21       13 
12      44      62 

9 

2 
2 
5 
2 
7 
1 
4 

1 
1 

18      76 

Bucks 

16      77 

Chester 

8      28 

Clearfield 

19      29 

Delaware 

6      21 

Monroe 

7       18 

Montgomery' 

11      48 

Northampton 

4        6 

Northumberland 

Perry 

4      11 
6      18 

Susquehanna 

4      12 

Westmoreland 

15      56 

140 

462    444 

194    456    566 

34 

118    400 

Abmgton 

6 
3 
2 
6 

10      11 

5 

4      11 

3        2 

8        7        8 

1        8        2 

11          3        4 

6        4        8 

2 

1 

1 

10 

Beaver 

4 

Kane 

2        1 

Lock  Haven 

5        2 

17 

17      29 

26      22       23 

4 

7      17 

Total 

157 

479    473 

220    478    589 

38 

125    417 

In  order  to  reduce  these  preferences  to  a  common  basis,  the  Table 
below  has  been  constructed,  again  assigning  a  purely  arbitrary  value 
of  three  (3)  to  first  choice,  two  (2)  to  second,  and  one  (1)  to  third 
choice.  It  is  clear,  too,  that  this  weighting  does  not  affect  the  rank- 
ing of  the  contributions: 


COUNTY  TEACHERS    INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 


35 


Table  V'II — Weighted  Choices  of  Contributions  of  Institute 
(2305  Teachers) 


Contribution 


Rank 

First 

Second 

Third 

(2) 

70.? 

615 

.517 

(1) 

86.5 

474 

281 

0) 

220 

478 

589 

(5) 

284 

ISO 

217 

(7) 

40 

110 

117 

(4) 

157 

479 

473 

(6) 

.S8 

125 

417 

Weighted 
Points 


Methods  of  Teaching 

Professional  Inspiration 

Discussion    Immediate    School 

Problem 

Subject  Matter 

Conference  with  Co.  Supt 

Exchange  of  Ideas 

Social  Contact  for  Teachers. . .  . 


3656 
3818 

2205 
1429 

457 
1902 

743 


Table  VII  is  self-interpreting.  Teachers  in  the  Pennsylvania  Insti- 
tutes in  which  the  inquiry  was  circulated,  give  prominence  to  the 
following  "actual  contributions,"  which  may  be  accepted  as  a  fair 
index  to  the  controlling  aim  or  aims:  Professional  Inspiration,  26.8 
per  ct.;  Methods  of  Teaching,  25.7;  Discussion  Imtnediate  School 
Problems,  15.5  per  ct.;  Exchange  of  Ideas,  13.3  per  ct.,  all  others, 
19.7  per  ct. 

A  Composite  Aim  for  Institutes 

Three  interested  factors  have  contributed  thus  far  to  the  formula- 
tion of  the  aims  of  the  institute  as  they  are  thru  the  revelation  of 
what  County  and  District  Superintendents  and  Supervising  Princi- 
pals— 368  in  all  from  various  parts  of  the  state, — and  2437  teachers 
who  answered  the  question  bearing  on  this  phase  of  our  study, 
regarded  as  the  contributions  of  the  institute  and  what  they  regarded 
as  the  ideal  aims.  A  composite  aim  from  all  these  judgments  will  be 
set  up  statistically  by  giving  the  per  centum  of  the  dominant  aims  as 
given  by  each  group.  No  justification  is  given  for  this  aim  and  the 
method  of  arriving  at  it.  It  is  simply  set  up  as  a  possible  assistance 
in  arriving  at  aims. 

The  table  below  has  been  arrived  at  by  the  weighting  of  the 
first,  second,  and  third  preferences.  The  only  value  claimed  for  this 
composite  aim,  statistically  derived,  is  the  light  it  may  throw  in 
formulating  aims  for  the  institute.  It  is  apparent  from  this  table  of 
aims  as  expressed  by  per  cents  that  the  three  predominating  aims 
should  be  Methods  of  Teaching,  Professional  Inspiration,  or  Esprit 
de  Corps,   Xcw   Movements   in    Education,   and   a   strong   tendency 


36 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 


Table  VIII — Data  For  Composite  Aim  in  Terms  of  a  Per  Cent  Ratio  to  all 
Aims  Given  by  Each  Group 


Supt. 


Aims 


Methods  of  Teaching 

Professional  Inspiration 

Impetus  to  Prof.  Reading.  .  .  . 
Discussion  School  Problems. . . 

Subject  Matter 

Exchange  of  Ideas 

Social  Contacts 

Community  Uplift 

Discipline  Rural  Schools 

Esprit  de  Corps 

New  Movements  in  Education . 

Entertainment 

Conference  with  Co.  Supt 


Present  Aim 


Co. 
Supt. 

(65) 


16. 
29. 
9.2 

7. 
3.7 
8.6 
11. 
8. 
7.1 


Super. 
Officers 

(368) 


19.9 

29.9 

13.1 

4. 

4.5 

5. 
5. 
1.8 

13.8 


Teachers 

(2305) 


25.7 
26.8 

15.5 

10. 

13.3 

5.2 


3.3 


Ideal  Aim 


Co. 

Supt. 

(65) 


25.2 
39.4 

6. 

6. 


12.1 


Supv. 

Offic's 

(200) 


21.5 
26.2 

9.9 

2.1 

13.9 

5.5 


20.8 


Teachers 

(582) 


27.1 
23.4 

6.9 

7.7 

11.7 

3.9 


19.3 


tovi^ards  the  opportunity  for  the  Exchange  of  Ideas.  County  Superin- 
tendents would  put  "professional  inspiration"  first,  district  superin- 
tendents and  supervising  principals  would  place  the  same  aim  first, 
but  not  with  such  predominating  emphasis,  while  teachers  would  put 
"methods  of  teaching"  first.  County  Superintendents  and  other 
supervisory  officials  would  put  "methods  of  teaching"  second, 
whereas  teachers  would  place  this  aim  first.  Teachers  and  super- 
visory officials  would  stress  "new  movements"  very  much,  while 
County  Superintendents  hardly  mention  this  as  an  aim.  The 
programs  of  the  County  Institute  reveal  very  clearly  that  County 
Superintendents  do  not  stress  new  movements,  but  rather  "inspira- 
tion" and  "methods." 

Aims  as  Revealed  by  State  Authorities  in  U.  S. 
An  inquiry  (See  Appendix  D)  was  also  submitted  to  all  the  state 
superintendents  in  the  U.  S.  with  the  view  of  determining  the  status 
of  County  Institutes  in  the  Nation.     One  of  the  questions  concerned 
the  aim  of  institutes  as  shown  by  this  question: 

To  which  of  the  following  should  Institutes  confine  themselves: 

a Methods  of  Teaching;  b "Inspirational  Lectures;" 

c Discussion  of  immediate  school  problems;  d Rural 

Schools? 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITLTllS  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  37 

The  question  did  not  call  for  a  ranking  of  these  "aims,"  iho  a  few- 
replies  attempted  to  rank  them. 

In  all  36  answered  this  particular  question,  the  46  replies  out  of 
48  possible  replies  were  received.  Out  of  these  36  replies,  25  checked 
all  these  aims;  31  checked  "methods";  26  "inspirational  lectures;" 
34  "school  problems";  31  "rural  schools";  1  checked  "methods"  and 
"discussion  of  immediate  school  problems";  1  checked  "discussion  of 
school  problems,"  only;  3  checked  "inspiration,"  "problems,"  and 
"methods";  1,  "inspiration"  and  "rural  school";  3  "methods," 
"problems,"  "rural  problems,"  while  1  omitted  "rural  schools." 
Only  six  of  the  states  that  still  held  institutes,  failed  to  answer  the 
question. 

Of  the  superintendents  that  attempted  a  ranking  of  these  four 
aims,  one  gave  60  per  ct.  to  "methods,"  20  per  ct.  to  rural  schools, 
and  10  per  ct.  to  each  of  the  others;  one  assigned  25  per  ct.  to  each; 
one  allowed  five  points  to  "methods,"  2  points  to  "problems,"  2 
points  to  "rural  schools,"  and  1  point  to  "inspiration";  another  gave 
first  rank  to  "methods,"  second  to  "problems,"  third  to  "rural 
schools,"  fourth  to  "inspiration";  still  another  said  that  he  would 
"rarely"  assign  anything  to  "inspirational  lectures."  In  fact,  the 
outstanding  feature  of  those  who  ranked  these  four  aims,  was  that 
"inspirational  lectures"  were  always  given  lowest  value. 

More  valuable  than  the  checking  of  these  suggestive  "aims" 
were  the  aims  as  given  by  the  State  Superintendents  themselves  or 
members  of  their  departments  in  supplementary  replies.  A  few  of 
these  are  quoted  as  valuable  in  determining  ])ossible  aims  for  Insti- 
tutes: 

Alabama — "The  county  institute  needed  in  this  state  in  particular  should  have  as 
their  function  the  promotion  in  the  several  counties  of  the  state  of  such  educational 
policies  agreed  upon  by  the  State  Department  that  arc  of  state-wide  significance." 

Florida — "The  aim  of  these  Institutes  should  be  to  bring  about  harmony  and 
co-operation  in  the  teaching  force  and  inculcate  spirit,  solve  the  iinnic(ii;itc  proMems 
of  teaching,  and  make  better  teachers." 

Massachusetts — "Among  the  chief  functions  of  the  county  in.-^tilutc  should  be 
mentioned  the  training  of  teachers  in  scrs-ice  through  inspirational  addresses  and 
discussion  of  the  most  effective  methods  of  instruction." 

Minnesota — "The  present  function  of  the  institute  is  to  inspire  the  teachers  to 
take  new  ideals  and  ideas  and  use  them  in  their  schools.  The  methods  or  means  of 
adapting  these  ideas  to  their  local  work  must  be  exemplified  and  the  teachers  be 
made  aware  of  their  own  ahiiity  to  do  and  thrir  responsibility  for  doing." 


38  COUNTY  teachers'  institutes  in  PENNSYLVANIA 

North  Dakota — "This  work  is  well  set  out  by  question  No.  19.  Each  state  will 
think  of  its  own  conditions.  .  .  .  Definite  programs  are  worked  on  the  things  we 
find  teachers  need." 

Oregon — "A  representative  of  the  state  department  always  attends  these  institutes 
(County).  Plans  for  the  school  year  are  given  in  the  general  assembUes  and  discussed  in 
the  various  sections.  At  least  one  day  of  the  institute  is  used  in  this  way.  Through 
this  plan  the  State  Superintendent,  the  County  Supt.,  and  the  teachers  keep  in  close 
touch  and  there  is  a  spirit  of  co-operation  that  permeates  the  entire  school  work  of  the 
state.  We  usually  have  about  one  inspirational  lecture  each  day  and  the  balance  of 
the  time  is  divided  between  methods  of  teaching  and  the  discussion  of  immediate 
school  problems." 

Pennsylvania  (1919) — "To  unify  the  educational  work  in  the  county;  to  inspire 
teachers  to  do  their  best  work;  to  help  young  and  inexperienced  teachers;  to  find  out 
sound  educational  practice,  then  exchange  experiences." 

Virginia — "Opportunity  for  the  division  superintendents  to  place  before  the 
teachers  plans  for  the  year.  In  other  words,  superintendent  cannot  well  organize 
his  schools  without  an  institute.  ...  In  many  cases  the  institute  is  inspirational 
and  leads  to  better  co-operation  in  school  activities." 

Washington — "in  this  state  a  great  army  of  new  teachers,  who  need  the  service  of 
the  institute,  are  entering  the  service.  In  this  state  it  is  practically  the  only  oppor- 
tunity the  superintendent  has  to  meet  and  direct  the  teachers  in  the  county.  Many 
counties  in  this  state  are  as  large  as  some  Eastern  States." 

Texas — "To  provide  professional  contacts  for  experienced  teachers;  training 
school  for  inexperienced  teachers;  oneness  of  purpose  and  spirit  for  all." 

Rhode  Island — "Subjects  for  an  institute  should  be  determined  by  the  needs  of  the 
teachers  in  the  community." 

Illinois — "First  of  aU  the  county  institute  should  be  for  the  purpose  of  outlining 
definitely  the  campaign  for  the  work  during  the  year.  The  county  superintendent 
should  meet  the  teachers  under  their  supervision  and  present  as  clearly  as  possible 
the  plans  for  the  coming  year.  The  purpose  of  the  institute  should  be  to  inspire 
the  teachers  with  the  idea  of  the  great  work  before  them  and  encourage  them  to  do 
their  best.  There  should  also  be  a  clear  presentation  of  methods  of  teaching  the 
principal  subjects  which  the  teachers  will  have  to  teach.  I  do  not  regard  public 
addresses  whose  chief  aim  is  to  amuse  as  worthwhile  material  in  a  teachers' institute." 

West  Virginia — "There  is  need  for  the  average  teacher,  grade  and  rural,  for  social 
and  professional  rejuvenation.  In  addition,  the  county  institute  serves  as  a  teachers' 
meeting  for  the  average  county  and  is  the  only  such  meeting  during  the  year.  This 
would  seem  important  because  the  county  superintendent  should  have  means  of 
laying  before  his  teachers  the  plans  under  which  they  wiU  co-operate  during  the  year's 
work." 

The  statement  of  these  aims  can  be  accepted  without  much 
comment.  They  may  be  summed  up,  however,  in  a  few  words — lay- 
ing before  teachers  the  year's  plans,  familiarizing  teachers  with  new 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  39 

methods  of  teaching,  developing  professional  zeal,  and  service  as  a 
teachers'  meeting. 

Aims  of  Institutes  as  Furnished  by  other  Educators 

All  the  factors  thus  far  employed  in  contributing  to  the  definition 
and  determination  of  the  aims  of  institutes  have  been  more  or  less 
interested  and  probably  prejudiced  one  way  or  another.  To  obviate 
this  difficulty,  an  attempt  is  also  made  to  derive  the  aims  of  teachers' 
institutes  from  another  source.  An  inquiry  (See  Appendix,  "e") 
was  sent  out  in  March  1922  to  28  prominent  educators  in  this  coun- 
try. Twenty-four  of  these  have  given  their  views  on  teachers' 
institutes  fully  and  concisely.  All  these  educators  have  had  a 
national  experience  with  institutes;  most  of  them  have  known  inti- 
mately of  the  Pennsylvania  Institutes;  six  of  these  twenty-four 
are  in  Pennsylvania,  two  being  Normal  School  principals  who  have 
appeared  frequently  on  the  institute  platform;  one  is  a  prominent 
Normal  School  teacher;  one  is  a  school  superintendent,  while  the 
fifth  was  formerly  Professor  of  Education  in  one  of  our  leading 
universities.  Nine  Deans  of  Schools  of  Education,  one  present 
member,  and  one  former  member  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education, 
both  of  whom  have  taken  active  parts  in  numerous  state  and  local 
surveys,  one  former  Commissioner  of  Education  in  the  U.  S.,  three 
prominent  Professors  of  Education  in  three  of  our  leading  Univer- 
sities, one  president  of  one  of  the  largest  Western  State  Universities, 
one  publicist,  and  two  State  Commissioners  of  Education  who  had 
not  answered  the  inquiry  first  sent  to  State  Superintendents,  have 
answered  the  last  inquiry  sent  out.  Question  5  in  this  inquiry  con- 
cerns the  aim  of  institutes: 

What,  in  j'our  opinion,  should  be  the  highest  aim  or  function  of  the  County 
Institute? 

Because  of  the  prominence  of  the  sources,  there  will  be  given  in 
full  the  replies  of  these  persons.    They  are  as  follows: 

Specialist  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Ediuation — "It  seems  to  me  that  the  function  of  the 
teachers'  institute  should  be  to  help  broaden  the  views  of  teachers  not  only  in  the 
field  of  pedagogy  but  all  related  fields.  The  attention  of  teachers  should  be  called  to 
the  most  progressive  movements  in  education." 

Former  Specialist  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Ediuation — "Institute  should  be  devoted  largely 
to  instruction  by  not  over  two  instructors,  with,  of  course,  instructions  from  the 
County  Superintendent  relative  to  general  questions  of  school  administration.  .  .  . 
Institute  is  ver>'  valuable  to  keep  teachers  interested  professionally." 


40  COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 

Professor  of  Education — "The  Institute  should  have  two  or  three  rather  dis- 
tinguishable functions  and  these  are  so  important  that  they  can  hardly  be  classified 
as  higher  or  lower.  The  institute  should  be,  to  a  certain  extent,  an  inspirational  force. 
By  quite  a  different  means  it  should  also  be  a  distinct  training  institution  in  certain 
specific  matters  of  aim  and  methods.  Third,  it  ought  also  to  offer  resources  for  the 
solution  of  particular  problems  encountered  by  teachers  in  the  field.  The  teachers' 
institute  must  tie  up  with  reading  and  other  self-education  to  be  permanently  effec- 
tive." 

Professor  of  Education — "If  five  or  more  days  of  actual  well  organized  conference 
and  discussion  of  the  professional  problems  can  be  organized,  the  institute  would 
prove  very  much  worth  while." 

Dean  of  School  of  Education — "I  think  that  the  only  way  to  make  these  institutes 
productive  is  to  connect  them  with  some  carefully  prepared  work  that  is  done  before 
and  after  the  institute." 

Dean  of  School  of  Education — "One  or  more  county  teachers'  meetings  for  admin- 
istrative purposes,  with,  perhaps,  one  inspirational  address  at  such  a  meeting.  The 
meeting  to  be  for  one  day — Sat.,  with  two  sessions,  if  necessarj'." 

Dean  of  School  of  Education — "To  make  teachers  intelligent  with  reference  to  their 
function  and  to  impress  the  responsibilities  of  the  work  of  teachers  upon  the  irresponsi- 
ble individuals  that  are  to  be  found  among  the  teachers  of  our  schools." 

Dean  of  School  of  Education — "To  create  an  interest  in  the  modern  and  best 
things  in  Education  with  the  hope  that  further  preparation  will  follow." 

Dean  of  School  of  Education — "To  stimulate  the  professional  growth  of  teachers 
not  to  furnish  factual  material  for  teachers'  examinations." 

Dean  of  School  of  Education — "I  should  say  that  the  chief  function  of  teachers' 
institute  is  to  keep  the  whole  corps  of  teachers  alive  and  growing  professionally  and 
to  set  professional  standards  for  the  county  or  district  which  are  considerably  above 
the  present  attainments  of  the  rank  and  file  of  teachers  in  those  counties  or  districts." 

President  of  Large  Western  State  University — "I  do  not  believe  we  can  ever  entirely 
dispense  with  teachers'  institutes  of  some  sort.  There  are  too  many  young  teachers 
coming  into  teaching  annually,  who  need  to  be  instructed  in  the  ways  of  managing 
schools,  and  who  need  additional  information  concerning  the  new  aspects  of  the 
technique  of  teaching.  Many  of  the  older  teachers,  too,  need  to  attend  an  institute 
of  some  sort  to  familiarize  themselves  with  the  changing  aspects  of  public  education. 
I  would  have  few  general  meetings  of  the  so-called  inspirational  sort,  and  more  group 
meetings.  Teachers  should  be  classified  on  the  basis  of  experience  or  training,  or  the 
type  of  work  that  they  are  engaged  in,  and  they  should  be  together  not  to  listen, 
but  to  work  co-operatively  the  solution  of  some  problems  of  common  interest." 

State  Commissioner  of  Education — "They  ser\'e  as  a  means  of  impressing  on 
teachers  the  magnitude  and  the  dignity  of  the  profession  with  which  thej'  are  con- 
nected. This  is  a  matter  of  no  small  value  especially  to  be  getting  teachers  and  to 
teachers  in  small  schools.  .  .  .  They  likewise  have  unquestioned  value  in  helping 
teachers  to  become  better  acquainted  with  technical  methods  of  education.  This  last, 
I  assume,  may  be  regarded  as  their  primary  object." 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  41 

Slate  Commissiomr  of  Juliuatimt — "Real  instruction;  never  real  entertainment. 
Instructors  should  be  licensed;  the  work  is  more  diflkult  than  that  of  the  ordinar>' 
teacher,  and  not  cvcrj-  one  should  be  allowed  to  carr>'  it  on." 

Pennsylvania  Normal  School  Principal — "1st:  Professional  training  of  teachers. 
2nd:  Inspiration  of  teachers.  3rd:  Development  of  educational  sentiment  in  the 
community." 

Pennsylvania  Normal  School  Principal — "It  seems  to  me  worth  while  to  have 
teachers  assemble  at  least  once  a  year  for  several  days  at  a  time  not  as  an  institute 
but  as  an  Assembly  of  teachers  for  the  purpose  of  developing  an  esprit  de  corps,  to 
hear  members  of  the  State  Department,  and  to  put  themselves  on  record  on  educational 
problems  locally  and  in  the  state." 

Pennsylvania  Normal  School  Inslruclor,  Director  Training  School — "There  is  value 
undoubtedly  in  calling  a  group  of  teachers  together  in  order  to  improve  the  esprit  de 
corps,  to  map  out  general  plans,  to  ofTer  opportunities  for  intelligent  reaction  from  the 
teachers,  and  to  have  a  group  check  on  various  administrative  or  educational  details." 

Official  Stale  Educational  Association — "To  develop  a  professional  attitude  on  the 
I>art  of  teachers  and  to  enable  them  to  comprehend  the  meaning  of  education  and 
the  significance  of  their  work.  The  laws  of  Pennsylvania  olTer  the  county  superin- 
tendent unique  opportunity  for  professional  work  with  teachers  at  the  County  Insti- 
tute.   Some  utilize  this  opportunity  up  to  KXKJf ,  some  0%." 

Publicist  and  Surveyor — "Exchange  of  high  spots;  practice  and  proposals;  person- 
ality clinics;  teacher  confessionals;  conferences  between  those  who  know  and  those 
who  want  to  know;  itinerant  teacher  universities  which  go  to  the  teacher  on  the  job 
instead  of  making  her  leave  the  job  and  work  out  an  artificial  relation  to  it." 

The  aims  as  given  by  these  authorities  do  not  need  any  inter- 
pretation. The  one  feature  common  to  all  these  proposed  aims  is 
specific  organization  for  specific  purposes.  All  the  aims  stress  the 
ideal  of  professional  improvement  of  teachers  in  service,  the  elimina- 
tion of  the  so-called  "inspirational  address"  by  old  time  institute 
lecturers,  and  doubt  is  expressed  as  to  the  need  of  a  five  day  Institute 
to  carry  out  any  of  the  aims  set  up.  The  aims  as  set  up  by  these 
experts  must  be  set  up  side  with  those  set  up  by  county  superinten- 
dents, district  superintendents,  supervising  principals,  teachers, 
state  superintendents  or  their  representatives.  In  the  concluding 
chapter  of  this  investigation,  these  various  aims  will  be  utilized  in 
evolving  suggestions  and  proposals  for  improving  or  changing  the 
institute. 

This  part  of  the  study  can  iic  apjuopriatcly  closed  by  a  statement 
of  the  aims  of  institutes  as  formulated  by  "The  Conference  on  Insti- 
tutes" held  at  the  University  of  Illinois,  Aug.  3-7,  1914.  This  aim, 
which  calls  for  the  meeting  of  teachers'  needs  is  comprehensive. 
If  teachers  need  greater  professional  zeal,  or  instruction  in  certain 


42  COUNTY  teachers'  institutes  in  PENNSYLVANIA 

methods,  or  acquaintance  with  changing  educational  conditions, 
such  should  be  the  purpose  or  aim.  The  statement  of  this  aim  is 
put  in  Article  I  of  the  "Resolutions"  passed  by  the  Conference. 

The  purpose  of  a  teachers'  institute  is  three-fold:  (a)  to  instruct  teachers  in  better 
ways  of  teaching  and  to  add  to  their  general  knowledge;  (b)  to  encourage  and  possibly 
to  inspire  teachers  in  their  daily  work  by  bringing  them  together  for  mutual  acquain- 
tance and  for  the  discussion  of  common  problems,  and  by  thus  creating  among  them 
an  effective  esprit  de  corps;  and  (c)  to  give  them  fresh  sense  of  their  responsibilities 
and  of  the  significance  of  their  work  to  the  welfare  and  progress  of  societ}'."^ 

*  Bulletin  No.  11,  University  of  lU.  Report  of  Conference  on  Institutes,  Dr.  W.  C. 
Bagley,  Chairman,  Op.  Cit. 


CHAPTER  III 

TiiK  Organization  of  the  Institute 

Legal  Basis 

Teachers'  Institutes  in  Pennsylvania  were  legally  called  into 
being  by  the  Act  of  April  9,  1867.  This  act  made  it  mandatory  upon 
the  County  Superintendent  "to  call  upon  and  invite  the  teachers  of 
the  common  schools,  and  other  institutes  of  learning  in  his  county,  to 
assemble  together  and  to  organize  themselves  into  a  teachers'  insti- 
tute, to  be  devoted  to  the  improvement  of  teachers  in  the  science, 
and  art  of  education,  to  continue  in  session  at  least  five  days,  includ- 
ing a  half  day  for  going  and  a  half  day  for  returning  from  the  place 
of  meeting  of  the  said  institute,  and  to  be  presided  over  by  the 
county  superintendent  or  by  some  one  designated  by  him,  and  be 
subject  in  its  general  management  to  his  control." 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  in  the  Act  of  1867  the  obligatory  attendance 
of  teachers  upon  the  County  Institute  is  not  provided  for.  In  the 
same  act  the  superintendent  "upon  the  assembling  of  the  teachers' 
institute  of  his  county,  shall  cause  a  roll  of  members  to  ])e  prepared, 
which  roll  shall  be  called  at  least  twice  every  day  during  the  session 
of  the  institute,  and  all  absentees  to  be  carefully  marked,  and  from 
which,  upon  the  adjournment  of  the  institute,  he  shall  ascertain  the 
exact  number  of  teachers  who  were  in  attendance,  and  the  length  of 
time  each  attended,  etc."  The  object  of  this  carefully  prepared  roll 
was  to  determine  how  much  the  county  treasurer  was  to  pay  the 
institute  at  the  rate  of  SI  .00  for  every  three  days  attended  by  teach- 
ers, provided  the  total  amount  did  not  exceed  $200. 

For  twenty  years  teachers  attended  institutes  voluntarily  and 
without  being  paid  by  their  school  districts  unless  their  school  boards 
voluntarily  compensated  them.  In  1887  an  act  was  passed  authoriz- 
ing and  requiring  boards  of  school  directors  to  pay  their  teachers  for 
attending  the  sessions  of  the  annual  institute  in  their  respective 
counties.  The  compensation  as  authorized  in  the  act  was  to  be  not 
less  than  the  per  diem  pay  for  actual  teaching,  "provided,  that  it 
shall  not,  in  any  case,  exceed  two  dollars  per  diem."  This  rate  of 
compensation  continued  as  such  until  the  new  school  code  of  1911 

43 


44  COUNTY  teachers'  institutes  in  PENNSYLVANIA 

increased  the  per  diem  compensation  to  three  dollars  and  also  pro- 
vided for  an  equal  forfeiture  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  for  every  day 
absent  from  the  institute  without  a  satisfactory  excuse.  The  Act  of 
1919  amended  the  Act  of  1911  making  the  compensation  of  teachers 
for  attendance  at  the  annual  institute,  four  dollars  per  diem. 

Several  other  important  provisions  bearing  on  the  organization  of 
the  institute  as  provided  for  in  the  original  Act  of  1867  and  the 
several  subsequent  acts  relating  to  institutes  must  here  be  noted. 
The  first  is  the  provision  of  the  Act  of  1887  which  allowed  school 
districts  with  75  teachers  under  a  superintendent  to  organize  an  an- 
nual institute  separate  from  the  county  institute  and  to  claim  county 
aid  on  the  same  basis  as  the  county  institute.  The  Act  of  1895 
changed  the  number  75  to  50,  while  the  Act  of  1911  reduced  this 
number  to  40.  The  Acts  of  1887  and  1895  allowed  the  county  insti- 
tute to  claim  from  the  county  treasury  not  less  than  $60  nor  more 
than  $200.  This  same  allowance  was  granted  to  districts  that 
decided  to  hold  separate  institutes.  The  Act  of  1911  (School  Law, 
Section  2101-2110)  made  the  minimum  allowance  from  the  county 
treasury  $100  and  retained  the  old  maximum  of  $200.  It  is  thus 
evident  that  a  district  that  employs  a  superintendent^  and  40  teachers 
may  claim  and  receive  from  the  county  treasury  at  least  $100, 
whereas  at  the  rate  of  $1.00  for  every  three  days  attendance  the 
district  would  be  entitled  to  only  $66.66. 

Two  very  important  provisions  of  the  several  institute  acts  relat- 
ing to  the  time  when  the  annual  institute  may  be  held  deserve  atten- 
tion. When  the  Act  of  1887  empowered  school  districts  that  employ 
75  teachers  and  a  superintendent,  and  the  Act  of  1895  reduced 
75  to  50,  to  hold  separate  annual  institutes,  no  change  was  made  in 
the  time  for  holding  the  institutes.  Institutes  were  to  be  called  at 
the  discretion  of  the  Superintendent,  county  or  district,  and  the 
institute  was  to  "continue  for  five  days."  One  half  day  was  to  be 
allowed  for  coming,  and  one  half  day  for  returning  from  the  place  of 
meeting, — pretty  generous  traveling  provisions  for  teachers  living 
in  a  city  or  borough.  This  discrepancy,  however,  was  remedied  by 
the  Act  of  1907  which  introduced  a  time  feature  which  creates  many 
possibilities  for  the  district  institutes.     This  Act  of  April  4,   1907, 

'  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  Philadelphia  does  not  hold  a  teachers'  institute 
with  salary  allowance  for  teachers  because  Philadelphia  does  not  regard  itself  as 
coming  under  the  provision  of  the  law  since  it  is  a  city  and  not  subject  to  any  Co. 
Supt.    Since  there  is  no  Co.  Supt.,  therefore,  no  institute. 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  4.S 

provided  "that  city  and  borough  teachers'  institutes  may  be  held, 
thruout  the  school  year,  on  any  five  days,  or  any  ten  half  days,  which 
the  city  or  borough  superintendent  of  schools  may  select  for  this 
purpose."  This  act  and  the  reincorporation  of  it  in  the  School  Code 
of  1911  immediately  raises  the  question  whether  or  not  the  county 
institute  must  be  held  on  five  consecutive  days,  i.e.  in  one  week,  or 
whether  or  not  it  may  be  held  on  five  different  days,  Saturdays  for 
instance,  or  Fridays  and  Saturdays.  This  question  was  raised  in  the 
fall  of  1918  when  the  epidemic  of  influenza  either  broke  up  or  elimin- 
ated entirely  some  annual  institutes.  While  a  few  county  institutes 
were  then  held  on  five  different  Saturdays,  it  seems  that  if  such 
construction  could  be  placed  on  the  Act  of  1S67,  the  Act  of  1907 
giving  districts  that  were  holding  separate  institutes  permission  to 
hold  institute  on  five  separate  days,  would  be  superfluous.  Aside 
from  the  desirability  of  holding  a  county  institute  two  or  three  days 
at  a  time,  the  question  of  legality  would  immediately  enter.  It  is 
every  evident  that  an  "annual  institute"  can  be  held  only  for  five 
continuous  days  as  provided  by  the  law. 

In  order  to  clear  this  matter  up,  an  opinion  was  secured  by  the 
writer  from  the  legal  offices  of  the  Department  of  Public  Instruction 
on  March  3,  1921,  to  the  effect  that  "county  institutes  may  only  be 
legally  held  under  the  present  statute  on  five  consecutive  days." 
This  legal  prohibition,  unless  removed,  would  per  se  prevent  the 
holding  of  county  institutes  twice  or  three  times  during  the  year. 

It  is  to  be  noted  also  that  the  County  Superintendent  has  abso- 
lute legal  control  over  the  organization  of  the  institute  in  his  county. 
The  law  provides  for  no  control  by  the  Department,  which  can, 
therefore,  offer  only  suggestions  for  any  features  of  its  organization. 
The  County  Superintendent,  therefore,  has  not  only  the  control, 
but  the  responsibility  for  the  character  of  his  county  institute.  The 
only  possible  form  of  control  that  can  at  present  be  exercised  over 
the  County  Institute  by  the  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion lies  in  the  annual  report  that  the  County  Superintendent  must 
submit  to  the  State  Superintendent. 

Having  sketched  the  legal  basis  for  teachers'  county  and  district 
institutes  in  Pennsylvania,  we  can  analyze  the  present  status  of  their 
organization.  This  analysis  is  based  primarily  on  the  replies  of  the 
66  county  superintendents  to  the  questionnaire  (q.v.  appendi-x)  on 
"The  Status  of  Teachers'  Institutes"  and  the  County  Institute 
Programs  of  1919  and  1920.     The  replies  to  the  questions  bearing 


46  COUNTY  teachers'  institutes  in  PENNSYLVANIA 

on  organization  were  unusually  complete  and  the  source  of  error 
negligible,  since  the  data  deal  for  the  most  part  with  facts. 

•    The  Time  and  Length  of  Holding  County  Institutes 

So  far  as  it  has  been  possible  to  find  out  county  institutes  have 
for  many  years  been  held  on  five  consecutive  days  in  one  week. 
This  is  the  law  and  the  law  has  been  followed  in  this  respect,  except 
in  1918-19  when  the  influenza  epidemic  made  it  impossible  to 
observe  the  law.  A  careful  investigation  into  the  time  of  holding 
the  county  institutes  shows  that  within  the  past  five  years  no  county 
institute  has  been  held  after  the  Christmas  holidays.  In  fact,  they 
have  all  been  held  within  a  period  of  16  weeks  or  four  school  months. 
In  the  year  of  1916-17  county  institutes  were  held  as  follows: 

a.  1  to    2  weeks  before  the  opening  of  school 7  counties 

b.  1  to    4  weeks  after  the  opening  of  school 7  counties 

c.  5  to    8  weeks  after  the  opening  of  school 19  counties 

d.  9  to  12  weeks  after  the  opening  of  school 14  counties 

e.  13  to  15  weeks  after  the  opening  of  school 19  counties 

The  most  frequent  week  in  1916-17  was  the  one  beginning  with 
Dec.  18;  second  most  frequent,  Nov.  13;  third  most  frequent,  Oct.  16. 
In  the  year  1917-18  county  institutes  were  held  as  follows: 

a.  1  week  before  opening  of  schools 11  counties 

b.  1  to    4  weeks  after  the  opening  of  schools 1  county 

c.  5  to    8  weeks  after  the  opening  of  schools 20  counties 

d.  9  to  12  weeks  after  the  opening  of  schools 14  counties 

e.  13  to  15  weeks  after  the  opening  of  schools 20  counties 

The  most  frequent  week  in  1917-18  was  the  one  beginning  with  Dec. 
15,  with  13  institutes;  the  second  most  frequent  were  the  weeks 
beginning  with  Oct.  27,  Nov.  10,  and  Dec.  1,  each  with  7  institutes. 
In  the  year  1920  county  institutes  were  held  as  follows: 

a.  1  week  before  opening  of  schools 13  counties 

b.  1  to    4  weeks  after  the  opening  of  schools 1    county 

c.  5  to    8  weeks  after  the  opening  of  schools 20  counties 

d.  9  to  12  weeks  after  the  opening  of  schools 14  counties 

e.  12  to  15  weeks  after  the  opening  of  schools 18  counties 

The  most  frequent  weeks  were  the  weeks  beginning  with  Aug.  30 
and  Dec.  20,  with  9  and  8  institutes  respectively;  the  second  most 
frequent,  the  weeks  beginning  with  Oct.  11,  Oct.  25,  and  Nov.  29, 
each  with  7  institutes;  the  third  most  frequent  date  was  Oct.  18,  with  5 
institutes. 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  47 

A  summary  of  the  data  given  for  the  years  1916-17,  1917-18,  and 
1920-21  would  show  the  following: 

31  institutes  held    1  week  before  the  opening  of  schools. 
9  institutes  held    1  to    4  weeks  after  the  opening  of  schools. 
59  institutes  held    5  to    8  weeks  after  the  opening  of  schools. 
42  institutes  held    9  to  12  weeks  after  the  opening  of  schools. 
57  institutes  held  1.^  to  15  weeks  after  the  opening  of  schools. 

The  most  frequent  date  in  the  three  years  was  the  week  before  the 
Christmas  holidays  when  33  institutes  were  held.  The  most  frequent 
periods  for  holding  the  institute  in  these  three  years  was  from  5  to  8 
weeks  after  the  opening  of  school  and  from  12  to  15  weeks  after. 

A  study  of  the  above  table  reveals  the  fact  that  the  tendency  to 
hold  the  institute  before  the  opening  of  the  schools  has  increased 
from  7  counties  in  1916  to  13  counties  in  1920;  that  30  percentum  of 
all  the  institutes  were  held  either  5  to  8  weeks  after  the  opening  of 
the  term,  or  13  to  15  weeks  after;  and  that  17  percentum  were  held  the 
week  before  the  Christmas  season.  In  the  three  years  named  only 
9  institutes  out  of  a  possible  198  were  held  within  four  weeks  after 
the  opening  of  the  schools.  In  1921  eleven  (11)  institutes  were  held 
on  or  before  Aug.  29th;  and  9  on  Dec.  19th,  one  week  before  Christ- 
mas. 

It  is  not  so  simple  a  matter  to  classify  the  dates  on  which  the 
district  institutes  are  held  unless  the  dates  are  actually  named  for 
each  institute.  This  is  due  to  the  wide  latitude  given  the  districts 
by  the  Act  of  1907  which  allows  these  institutes  to  meet  on  five 
diflferent  days  or  on  10  different  half  days.  For  instance,  in  1916 
there  were  44  separate  institutes  held  by  50  districts.  These  were 
held  thruout  the  year  as  follows: 

a.  Fifteen  on  five  separate  days 

b.  Two  on  ten  half  days 

c.  Six  on  one  to  three  days  before  opening  of  schools 

d.  Nine  some  other  time  during  the  year 

e.  Two  on  three  to  four  days 

f.  Nine  on  five  days  before  opening  of  schools 

g.  Three  five  days  after  schools  opened. 

In  1919  of  the  dates  as  listed  by  the  circular  issued  by  the  De- 
partment of  Public  Instruction,  it  is  found  that  18  district  institutes 
met  on  8  different  dates  for  a  period  of  one  week,  as  follows: 

a.  Eight  on  .\ug.  25;  b.  One  on  Sept.  1 ;  c.  One  on  Sept.  2;  d.  One 
on  Sept.  5;  e.  One  on  Sept.  8;  f.  One  on  Dec.  1;  g.  One  on  Dec.  11. 


48  COUNTY  teachers'  institutes  in  PENNSYLVANIA 

The  remaining  31  district  institutes  all  met  on  different  dates  during 
the  year. 

The  year  1920  presents  a  situation  of  time  as  varied  as  the  two 
other  years  studied.  Of  the  55  districts  holding  separate  institutes, 
only  22  gave  definite  dates.  (Dec.  1,  1920).  Roughly,  the  dates  for 
the  district  institutes  in  1920  may  be  classified  as  follows: 

a.  Aug.  23-27 4  institutes 

b.  Aug.  30-Sept.  3 9  institutes 

c.  Sept.  7,  8,  Jan.  3,  4,  5 1  institute 

d.  Oct.  11-15 1  institute 

e.  Nov.  22-27 1  institute 

f.  Nov.  29-Dec.  3 1  institute 

g.  Different  dates 9  institutes 

h.  Five  Saturdaj^s 2  institutes 

i.  Ten  half  days 2  institutes 

i.  Ten  half  da3's 2  institutes 

j.  First  Friday  and  Saturday  of  each  month 1  institute 

k.  Between  Sept.  1  and  Jan.  1 1  institute 

1.  Various  week  ends 1  institute 

m.  Aug.  31-Sept.  3  and  2  half  days  later 1  institute 

n.  Thruout  the  year 3  institutes 

o.  Three  times  during  the  term 1  institute 

p.  Sept.  6  and  later 1  institute 

q.  March  25 1  institute 

r.  Aug.  24 1  institute 

s.  Nov.  25,  26,  Mar.  29,  30,  31 1  institute 

The  remaining  dates  were  not  determined  when  the  list  of  dates  was 
secured  from  the  Department. 

Much  space  has  been  given  to  the  data  bearing  on  the  time  for 
holding  county  and  districts  institutes  because  of  its  bearing  on  the 
functioning  of  the  institute  as  an  agency  to  improve  teachers  in  the 
service  or  about  to  serve.  The  program  will  undoubtedly  vary,  or 
should,  directly  as  the  time  when  the  institute  is  held.  If  the  insti- 
tute is  held  before  the  schools  open,  not  only  the  program,  but  the 
organization  into  sections  will  vary.  The  program  should  look 
ahead.  If  the  institute  is  held  weeks  or  months  after  the  schools 
open,  the  whole  program  and  departments  may  be  built  up  around 
teachers'  actual  school  room  experiences  and  problems.  That  there 
are  virtues  in  holding  the  institute  before  or  after  the  schools  open 
cannot  be  denied  nor  overlooked.  That  the  institute  may  function 
better  if  held  at  intervals  during  the  year  is  also  a  question  worthy 
of   consideration.      For   this   reason   the   judgments   of   the   county 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  49 

superintendents  of  Pennsylvania  are  worth  having.  In  answer  to 
question  1  (See  Questionnaire  in  Appendix)  as  to  the  time  preferred 
by  county  superintendents  for  holding  the  annual  institute  we  find 
the  following  preferences: 

a.  Before  opening  of  the  schools 29,  or  45  per  cent.  (64  ans.) 

b.  After  opening  of  the  schools 35,  or  55  per  cent.  (64  ans.) 

c.  One  week  before  opening 13  (48  answers  to  c,  d,  e,  f) 

d.  One  month  after  opening 15 

e.  Two  months  after  opening 16 

f .  One  week  before  Christmas 4 

Below  are  given  in  parallel  columns  the  preferences  of  the  county 
superintendents  in  the  time  for  holding  the  institutes  and  the  actual 
practice: 

Preferences  Actual  Practice — 3  yrs. 

a.  Before  opening  of  schools  45  per  ct.  16  per  ct. 

b.  After  opening  of  schools 55  per  ct.  84  per  ct. 

Because  only  48  superintendents  answered  that  part  of  the  inquiry 
bearing  on  the  actual  time  preferred  in  weeks  before  or  after  the 
opening  of  the  schools,  the  comparison  cannot  be  pushed  any  further 
tho  it  is  obvious  from  the  data  at  hand  that  the  discrepancy  between 
preference  and  practice  is  just  as  pronounced  as  it  is  in  items  a  and 
b  above.  Thus  only  4  out  of  48  prefer  the  week  before  Christmas  for 
institute  whereas  in  practice  in  three  years  Z3  institutes  were  held 
at  this  time— 12  in  1916,  13  in  1919,  and  8  in  1920,  an  average  of  11 
each  year.  Thirty-five  district  superintendents  answered  this  ques- 
tion of  preference  of  time  with  practically  the  same  result — 40  per 
centum  preferred  the  time  before  the  opening  of  schools,  60  pcrcentum 
after. 

We  also  have  the  judgment  of  83  district  superintendents  and 
supervising  principals  as  to  their  preference  in  the  time  of  holding  the 
county  institute.  Thirty-seven  prefer  the  week  before  the  opening  of 
school,  46  sometime  after.  Fourteen  also  prefer  the  institute  at 
regular  intervals  during  the  school  year;  a  few  three  days  before  the 
schools  open  and  several  half  days  after  the  schools  open.  One 
superintendent  prefers  one  half  day  at  the  end  of  each  scholastic 
month;  still  another  prefers  1  day  before  the  opening  of  the  term 
and  then  the  second  consecutive  morning  of  six  months.  Very  few 
of  the  borough  and  city  superintendents  advocate  an  institute  cover- 
ing five  consecutive  days.     For  very  obvious  reasons,  57  county 


50  COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 

superintendents  prefer  the  institute  on  five  consecutive  days,  4  on 
non-consecutive  days.  It  is  rather  odd,  too,  that  the  four  who  prefer 
breaking  up  the  institutes  into  non-consecutive  days  are  from 
counties  with  very  poor  transportation  facilities. 

Below  are  given  reasons  why  some  superintendents  prefer  holding 
the  institute  either  before  or  after  opening  of  the  schools,  and  also 
reasons  for  the  actual  practice. 

Reasons  for  Holding  It  Before  Opening  of  School 

"Teachers  would  have  benefit  of  work  done  or  given  during  entire  term." 

"Teachers  who  are  teaching  their  first  term  would  receive  more  help  from  the 
institute  on  account  of  having  actual  teaching  experience." 

"Get  your  inspiration  before  begiiming  the  work." 

"It  would  then  be  possible  to  give  the  teachers  plans  and  instructions  for  the 
year's  work.    This  would  be  of  great  assistance  to  inexperienced  teachers." 

"I  always  have  a  meeting  of  all  those  who  are  teaching  for  the  first  time  before 
school  begins.  The  other  teachers  prefer  it  later,  as  it  is  a  change.  Those  who  have 
never  taught  before  are  able  to  suit  it  to  their  experience." 

"I  hold  one  week  of  teacher  training,  the  week  preceding  the  opening  of  institute 
for  my  young  inexperienced  teachers.  Our  schools  are  all  filled  with  teachers  before 
October  first." 

"Wish  to  make  preparations  during  summer  and  be  able  to  take  advantage  of 
good  road  in  vdsiting  school." 

"The  teachers  can  appl}'  the  helpful  suggestions  at  the  opening  of  their  schools." 

"If  'all  factors'  named  above  is  intended  to  include  temperature  and  other  atmos- 
pheric conditions,  I  would  hold  institute  one  week  before  openmg  of  schools.  It 
would  enable  advantages  gained  at  county  institute  to  be  used  entire  school  term." 

"The  logical  time  for  instruction  and  promulgation  of  plans,  etc.,  etc." 

"The  supt.  can  state  to  the  teachers  his  aims." 

"If  institutes  were  held  before  the  opening  of  the  schools,  there  would  be  no 
interruption  of  the  work  and  help  would  be  given  at  the  best  time." 

"Inspiration  given  teachers  to  begin  work,  new  methods  presented  can  be  adapted 
to  suit  teacher's  work.    No  break  in  school  term  on  account  of  institute." 

"Gives  opportunity  to  beginner  teachers  to  get  much  needed  help.  Also  to 
outHne  and  discuss  for  term." 

"If  there  is  any  outline  in  the  institute  beginning,  teachers  should  have  its  benefit 
before  opening  school." 

Reasons  for  Holding  It  After  Opening  of  School 

"Teachers  are  then  looking  for  help;  not  necessary  to  close  schools." 

"It  is  a  change  from  the  regular  routine  of  work.  About  the  middle  of  the  term 
hold  a  school  of  methods  before  the  opening  of  the  schools." 

"My  institutes  being  sectional,  I  want  my  teachers  to  get  the  benefit  of  this 
instruction  and  together  with  the  inspiration  received,  do  better  work." 

"Avoid  school  interruption,  and  makes  educational  morale  before  struggle 
begins." 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  51 

"Have  received  one  month's  pay.  Have  taught  long  enough  to  feel  need  of  meth- 
ods for  their  school  work.    Teachers  know  by  this  time  what  their  needs  are." 

"Beginners  have  learned  some  of  the  real  [)roblems  of  their  schools;  can  seek 
definite  and  assimilate  the  help  offered." 

"The  new  teachers  get  the  week's  setting  of  their  problems  in  their  new  schools 
155  out  of  22S  one-room  teachers  were  new  this  year." 

"It  comes  about  the  middle  of  the  term  when  teachers  need  added  incentive  to  do 
good  work.    We  hold  a  school  of  methods  at  the  Ijeginning  of  term." 

"Many  of  our  teachers  cannot  be  secured  much  before  first  Monday  of  September, 
hence  irregular  opening  of  school.  At  this  particular  time  of  the  year  the  people  of 
city  and  the  countr>'  have  full  time  to  attend  the  sessions  of  County  institute." 

"Teachers  have  time  enough  to  become  conscious  of  their  need.  Supt.  will  have 
sufficient  time  to  create  proper  attitude.    (Meeting.)" 

"Inexperienced  see  their  needs  by  that  time.  Others  need  that  source  of  inspira- 
tion near  the  middle  of  term." 

"School  of  methods  will  precede  opening  of  schools.  One  month  after  opening 
seems  a  fair  length  of  time  for  teachers'  problems  to  assume  definite  form." 

"To  save  closing  schools.  Young  teachers  have  met  their  difhculties  and  can 
therefore  derive  benefit." 

"As  teachers  will  then  have  met  problems  for  which  they  seek,  and  besides,  it 
will  give  the  superintendents  two  months  to  organize  the  schools  and  hold  local  teachers' 
meetings  to  present  method.  The  county  institute  is  inspirational  rather  than  aids  in 
method." 

"Usual  weather  conditions." 

"Our  institute  attracts  hundreds  of  patrons  and  is  an  educational  force  in  the 
county;  for  this  reason  we  hold  it  after  farm  work  is  done." 

"Problems  have  arisen.    Institute  should  help  solve  them." 

"Teachers  should  receive  first  month's  pay  to  finance  expenses  of  the  institute. 
Teachers  will  not  be  in  touch  with  their  immediate  school  problems  until  they  teach 
a  few  weeks,  hence  will  not  know  what  to  look  for  at  the  institute  if  held  before  opening 
of  school  and  possibly  obtain  nothing  from  such  an  institute." 

"\'oung  teachers  of  whom  we  have  a  number  are  more  eager  to  learn  after  a 
month  or  two  of  actual  experience. 

"A  school  of  methods  has  been  held  in  this  county  preceding  the  opening  of 
schools  ever>'  year  since  1913." 

"By  November  the  teachers  have  become  interested  in  their  work  and  are  more 
in  the  spirit  for  receiving  help.    It  suits  our  directors  best." 

"To  give  the  beginner  teachers  an  opportunity  to  find  out  some  of  their  problems." 

"Weather  conditions  arc  good  and  teachers  are  better  able  financially,  to  attend 
at  that  time.    We  have  a  great  many  teachers  in  rural  communities." 

"Many  of  our  girls  are  beginners  with  little  or  no  training.  They  have  no  prob- 
lems before  schools  begin.    One  month  after  school  they  have  many." 

"My  first  choice  would  be.  Teachers  then  know  their  needs  more  fully. 
Have  had  month's  pay  to  attend,  buy  books,  subscribe  for  magazines.  Weather 
is  fine  usually.    Talent  rather  easy  to  secure  at  this  time." 

"Give  teachers  a  chance  to  compare  with  others.  (Not  too  late  to  take  up  new 
movements.)" 


52  COUNTY  teachers'  institutes  in  PENNSYLVANIA 

"1.  All  teachers  will  have  a  better  conception  of  the  real  needs  of  their  schools; 
2.  August  is  usually  too  warm  a  month  for  big  meetings;  3.  Teachers  usually  need 
some  cash  to  pay  board  and  for  periodicals  at  the  County  Institute." 

"After  a  month's  experience  teachers  especially  young  ones,  will  appreciate 
answers  to  problems  they  have  met." 

"Teachers'  minds  are  interested  in  school  work,  and  not  in  summer  pleasure. 
Teachers  had  pay  and  the  weather  is  more  favorable." 

"We  have  it  the  week  before  Christmas.  Precedent  as  much  as  an3i;hing.  But  we 
find  it  generally  satisfactory,  at  least  to  the  majority  of  the  teachers,  and  the  preference 
of  the  majority  must  be  considered." 

"Their  spirits  have  slackened.  They  receive  inspiration  and  return  the  inspiration 
received  at  the  beginning  of  the  term.  Will  not  carry  them  through  a  period  of  8 
months." 

"Teachers  at  the  end  of  one  month  know  what  their  real  problems  will  be  for  the 
term.    This  is  especially  true  of  beginners." 

Reasons  for  Time  Actually  Held  {After  Opening  of  Schools) 

"Many  teachers  on  account  of  purse  cannot  afford  to  attend  until  some  salary 
is  received." 

"Our  institute  is  held  the  week  prior  to  the  hoHdays." 

"It  has  always  been  held  the  week  before  Christmas." 

"More  favorable  attitude  to  receive  instruction;  children  help  parents  in  corn- 
husking  time  and  potato-picking  season." 

"Have  been  following  custom  for  40  years." 

"It  has  been  customary  to  hold  it  in  October  for  years.  We  plan  to  change  this 
beginning  Sept.,  1920." 

"Teachers  wUl  come  to  the  institute  -with  problems.  Evening  entertainments  can 
be  provided  better  later." 

"Want  of  finances  on  part  of  teachers." 

"Two  months  and  one  week  after  opening;  tradition,  and  the  wish  of  the  teachers." 

"It  is  held  the  week  before  Christmas.  From  custom;  less  breaks  in  school 
work;  teachers  need  recreation  and  inspiration  then." 

"It  was  postponed  indefinitely  last  November  because  of  the  Influenza  and 
great  number  of  deaths.  We  can  secure  better  hotel  accommodations  in  the  second 
week  of  November." 

"After  farm  work  is  done." 

"Court  week  and  county  fair  both  interfere." 

"For  economic  reasons." 

"Customs;  may  change  any  time." 

"Difiicult  to  get  instructors  wanted  at  just  that  time.  Must  sandwich  institute 
date  between  court  dates  on  October." 

"Ours  is  held  two  months  after  opening;  custom." 

"40%  of  the  teachers  in  our  institute  come  from  Danville  Boro.  For  local  reasons 
Danville  Board  of  Education  prefers  week  before  Christmas." 

"Because  rural  districts  frequently  do  not  have  teachers  hired  by  time  borough 
schools  begin." 

"Teachers  are  biased  through  custom." 

"Second  Monday  of  October,  because  that  has  been  the  time  for  years." 


COUNTY  TEACHERS    INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 


53 


"I  hold  my  institute  the  week  prior  to  Christmas,  for  financial  reasons.    I  tried 
to  bring  it  6  weeks  eariier  and  lost  mone^'." 
"Hard  to  get  good  evening  talent." 
"Chautauqua  comes  here  late  in  August  each  year,  so  we  wait  until  November." 

Teachers'  Preferences  for  Time  of  Holding  Institute 

Another  important  factor  in  the  determination  of  the  time  pre- 
ferred for  holding  the  institute  is  the  teacher.  In  view  of  the  con- 
stantly growing  practice  of  teacher  participation  in  school  policy 
formulation  thru  the  organization  of  teachers'  councils,  this  factor 
must  be  considered.  A  questionnaire  (see  Appendi.x)  was  submitted 
to  teachers  in  twelve  counties  and  four  districts.  One  question  had 
to  do  with  the  choice  of  time  for  holding  the  institute.  Replies  to 
this  question  were  given  by  2623  teachers  and  principals.  The  an- 
swers are  tabulated  below. 

Table  IX — Teachers'  Preferences  for  Time  of  Holding  Institute 


When 

Time  Pre- 

Time Pre- 

Actually 

County 

ferred — Before 

ferred — After 

Held 

Berks 

54 

323 

After 

Bucks 

9 

356 

After 

Chester 

13 

155 

After 

Clearfield 

94 

1(>1 

After 

Delaware 

7 

80 
110 

After 

Monroe 

9 

After 

Montgomerv' 

336 

116 

Before 

Northampton 

30 

259 

After 

NorthumI)erland .  .  . . 

12 

91 

After 

Perry 

26 

38 

After 

Susquehanna 

15 

49 

After 

Westmoreland 

81 

206 

After 

686 

1947 

Total       2633 

District': 

Abington 

45 

8 
10 

Before 

Beaver 

3 

After 

Kane 

22 

10 

After 

Lock  Haven 

13 

22 

After 

83 

50 

133 

Total 

769 

1997 

2766 

54  COUNTY  teachers'  institutes  in  PENNSYLVANIA 

It  is  very  clear  that  76 . 5  per  cent  of  these  teachers  preferred  the 
institute  after  schools  open.  It  is  also  clear  that  teachers  have  in- 
variably expressed  preference  for  the  time  as  shown  by  time  for 
holding  their  own  institute.  It  is  very  difficult  to  get  away  from 
the  power  of  suggestion.  Most  of  the  common  reasons  given  by 
teachers  for  the  time  preferred  for  holding  the  institutes  are  given 
below: 

Teachers'    Reasons  for   Holding    Institute    Before    Opening   of  Schools 
"New  ideas  for  the  school  year." 

"Break  in  school  year  prevented."     (Most  common  reason.) 
"Inspiration  for  beginning  work." 
"Aims  of  superintendent  kno-sv-n." 
"Enthusiasm  aroused." 
"Preparation  received." 
"Advice  desired  before  school  opens." 
"Get  a  good  start." 
"Suggestions  applied  early." 
"Methods  for  immediate  use." 
"Link  between  school  and  vacation." 
"Better  attitude  for  instruction." 
"Means  a  two  weeks'  loss  to  pupils." 
"Inspiration  to  new  teachers." 
"Gives  unity  to  work." 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  of  all  the  reasons  given  for  holding 
the  institute  before  schools  open,  not  one  has  been  the  "opportunity 
of  holding  a  conference  with  the  county  superintendent."  In  eight 
counties  where  1500  teachers  who  answered  the  question  bearing 
on  the  contribution  of  the  institute  to  the  teacher,  only  14  gave  "Con- 
ference with  the  County  Superintendent"  as  a  most  valuable  con- 
tribution. 

Teachers'  Reasons  for  Holding  Institute  After  Opening  of  Schools 
"Problems  discovered."  "Conditions  better  known." 

"Finances  do  not  permit  it."  "Opportunity  to  learn  problems." 

"Rest  from  teaching."  "Recess    valuable    to    teachers    and 

pupils." 
"Cooler  weather."  "Remedy  mistakes  seen." 

"Relief  for  pupils."  "Know  needs  of  pupils  and  self." 

"Summer  plans  interferred  with."  "Time  to  study  problems." 

"Personal  check  on  work."  "Variety." 

"Teachers  centrally  located."  "More  inspiration." 

"Custom."  "Accustomed  to  school  atmosphere." 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  55 

Type  of  Institute 

Question  4  of  the  county  superintendents'  questionnaire  (q.v. 
Appendix)  on  "The  Status  of  County  Teachers'  Institutes"  relates 
to  the  type  of,  or  form  of  organization.  In  1918  the  types  or  forms  of 
organization  of  the  institutes  were  as  follows: 

a.  General  Sessions  only 34 

b.  Half  Rcneral,  half  sectional 30 

c.  All  sectional 0 

d.  Other  ty-pes — combinations  of  b  and  c. .  2 

Total 66 

The  preferences  of  the  county  superintendents  in  the  spring  of 
1919  were  in  reply  to  the  question. 

As  follows:  "If  you  could  control  all  the  factors  determining  the  kind  of  institute 
you  would  have,  check  .  .  .  the  t>'pe  you  would  select  for  the  best  interests  of  your 
schools." 

Types  Preferences  Practice 

a.  General  sessions,  only 15  34 

b.  Half  general,  half  sectional 45  30 

c.  .All  departmental 2  0 

d.  Other  kinds  or  tj^jes 3  2 

e.  Unknown 1 

66  66 

It  is  easily  evident  that  there  was  very  little  correlation  between 
what  was  preferred  and  the  actual  practice.  Because  of  the  many 
conditions  which  exist  in  determining  the  type  of  institute  held,  the 
county  superintendents  gave  their  reasons  for  the  type  preferred  and 
for  the  present  form  of  organization. 

The  reasons  given  by  the  county  superintendents  are  self-explana- 
tory. Nearly  all  realize  the  advantages  of  the  half  sectional  and 
half  general  session  type  of  organization  and  prefer  it,  but,  as  has 
been  pointed  out,  preference  and  practice  did  not  agree.  In  1920 
the  Department  of  Public  Instruction  issued  a  bulletin  on  institutes 
in  which  it  was  urged  that  county  institutes  be  departmentalized. 
Since  the  present  inquiry  in  1919,  the  number  of  departmentalized 
institutes  has  increased.  In  1919  out  of  49  institutes  M  were  strictly 
general;   10  were  partially  general  with  3  one  half  days  or  more 


56 


COUNTY  TEACHERS    INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 


sectional;  7  were  partially  sectional.  In  1920,  29  were  sectional, 
24  general.  No  data  are  available  for  remaining  13  institutes.  In 
1921  no  doubt  more  than  50  per  cent  were  half  general  and  half 
sectional. 

Teachers^  Preferences  of  Type  of  Institute 

The  other  important  factor  bearing  on  the  matter  of  the  type  of 
institute  preferred  is  the  teacher  who  must  attend  the  institute. 
In  all  there  were  2730  answers  to  the  inquiry  on  the  type  of  institute 
preferred.    The  result  of  this  referendum  is  given  in  the  table  below. 


Table  X — Type  of  Institute  Preferred- 
(Teachers) 


-County 


County 

Present 
Type 

Preference 
General 

Sessions 

Preference 

Half  Gen. 

-Half  Sect. 

All 

Sectional 

Berks 

Half  S— G 
General 
Half  S— G 
Half  S— G 
Half  S— G 
General 
Half  S— G 
Half  S— G 
General 
General 
General 
Half  S— G 

120 

270 

7 

56 

1 

75 

31 

75 

53 

36 

10 

94 

245 

99 

147 

200 

84 

24 

396 

199 

43 

20 

43 

151 

2,i 

Bucks 

3 

Chester 

11 

Clearfield 

3 

Delaware 

6 

Monroe 

6 

Montgomery 

13 

Northampton 

27 

Northumberland 

5 

Perry 

4 

Susquehanna 

0 

Westmoreland 

7 

828 

1651 

118 

Districts 

Abington 

2 

7 
0 
2 

48 

8 

28 

28 

2 

Beaver 

0 

Kane 

5 

Lock  Haven 

5 

Total 

11 
839 

112 

1763 

12 

130(2732) 

COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  57 

In  the  12  counties  where  the  questionnaire  was  given,  several  had 
both  types,  the  all  general  sessions,  and  the  half  general,  half  sec- 
tional. The  preponderating  sentiment  among  the  2730  teachers 
seems  to  favor  the  second  type, — half  general,  and  half  sectional. 

The  general  session  type  of  institute  is  the  type  where  all  the 
teachers  meet  together,  morning  and  afternoon,  in  one  large  auditor- 
ium to  hear  lectures  on  educational  subjects  and  others.  The 
second  type  provides  that  all  the  teachers  shall  meet  together  either 
morning  or  afternoon,  or  half  of  the  morning  or  afternoon,  and  the 
rest  of  the  time  the  teachers  are  divided  into  groups  or  departments 
to  receive  instruction  suitable  to  their  needs  and  wants.  The  all 
sectional  type  which  in  1919  was  very  rare  in  Pennsylvania,  pro- 
vides group  programs  all  the  time.  There  are  varieties  of  the  two 
leading  types,  but  on  the  whole  the  teachers  either  meet  together  and 
receive  the  same  instruction,  or  they  are  divided  so  that  they  may 
receive  special  instruction,  part  of  the  time,  and  instruction  in  sub- 
jects of  general  interest  part  of  the  time. 

A  summary  of  the  answers  in  the  12  counties  and  4  districts 
gives  65%  of  the  answers  in  favor  of  the  half  sectional  and  half 
general  sessions  plan.  Only  5%  of  the  teachers  who  replied  to  this 
question  favored  the  all  sectional  type  of  institute,  while  30% 
favored  the  general  sessions  type. 

A  further  analysis  of  these  replies  indicate  that  698  teachers  in 
the  12  counties  prefer  another  type  from  the  predominant  one. 
This  is  27%  of  the  teachers  replying  to  this  question. 

Pecttliar  Forms  or  Types  of  Organization 

Since  the  general  session-sectional  type  of  county  institute  is 
increasing  in  number  in  Pennsylvania,  it  is  important  that  we  know 
the  most  common  groupings  of  teachers  as  revealed  by  the  programs 
of  1920-21.  This  is  an  obviously  difficult  thing  to  do  because  these 
sections  or  departments  difTer  very  much  in  the  53  counties  studied, 
in  which  30  are  of  the  half-general  and  half-sectional  type.  How- 
ever, for  convenience,  the  following  generalization  or  summary  will 
be  given: 

(1)  All  the  institutes  at  some  time  or  other  meet  as  one  group  or  section. 

(2)  There  are  21  t}7>cs  of  groups  or  sections  found. 

(3)  The  differcn  types  with  their  frequencies  arc:  17  high  schools;  19  rural;  12 
primary;  6  grammar;  8  grammar-high  school;  1  rural  and  primary;  1  itUcr mediate- 
primary;  2  P  incipals;  1  Principals  and  high  school:  3  beginners:  6  graded;  2  rural  and 


58  COUNTY  teachers'  institutes  in  PENNSYLVANIA 

grades;  2  three  atidfoiir;  1  tii<o  and-  three;  2  one  and  two;  5  five  and  six;  1  four  and  one; 
2  ungraded;  1  music;  5  intermediate;  1  five  and  twelve.  Volunteer  classes  were  found  in 
one  county.    In  two  counties  there  appeared  to  be  a  few  demonstration  classes. 

It  is  thus  seen  that  the  groups  that  are  the  most  clearly  defined 
by  their  frequencies  are  the  high  school,  grammar  school,  rural,  and 
primary.  These  groups  with  some  modification  for  local  situations 
would  appear  to  meet  the  majority  of  needs.  It  should  be  desirable, 
however,  to  follow  rather  closely  the  groupings  used  in  the  profes- 
sional training  of  teachers,  viz..  Primary,  Intermediate,  Junior  High 
or  Grammar  School,  and  High  School,  and  rural.  With  some  slight 
modification  this  grouping  should  be  adaptable  in  nearly  all  counties. 
The  writer  would  suggest  that  teachers  of  grades  1  to  6  in  rural  schools 
be  one  group  since  the  majority  of  such  teachers  will  teach  the  first 
six  grades;  that  rural  teachers  of  grades  7  and  8,  meet  with  other 
similar  teachers,  their  problems  being  essentially  the  same;  further- 
more, this  grouping  will  logically  fit  in  with  the  Junior  High  School 
group.  Unless  there  are  many  principals,  these  might  attend  such 
groups  as  may  interest  them  in  their  peculiar  administrative  capaci- 
ties. High  School  teachers  in  both  urban  and  rural  schools  can 
easily  meet  together,  for  their  problems  have  much  in  common. 

Four  groups  or  sections  in  counties  of  average  size  and  population 
should  be  sufficient.  There  appears  to  be  some  danger  in  over  sec- 
tionalization,  especially  in  counties  that  have  less  than  300  to  400 
teachers. 

There  is  at  present  in  the  county  institute  a  lack  of  what  is 
commonly  known  as  "Demonstration"  work.  More  should  be  pro- 
vided, in  fact  there  is  scarcely  any  of  it  now.  Expert  teachers  should 
be  provided  for  this  work.  In  fact,  stronger  and  more  modern 
programs  can  be  built  up  around  Demonstration  work,  particularly 
if  the  Institute  continues  to  be  held  for  five  days.  A  recent  district 
institute  has  been  developed  entirely  on  this  type.^  The  plan  merely 
brings  the  method  of  the  training  school  to  the  teacher.  It  gives 
teachers  a  chance  to  react  instead  of  compelling  teachers  to  be  reser- 
voirs to  be  pumped  full  by  the  instructor.  The  teacher  needs  self 
activity  just  as  pupils  do.  By  providing  Demonstration  work  that 
requires  follow-up  study  and  preparation  on  the  part  of  teachers, 
would  give  purpose  and  continuity  to  an  institute  program. 

'  "A  Different  Institute,"  Dodd,  Penna.  Journal  of  Education,  Feb.  1922. 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  59 

Participation  of  Teachers  in  Shaping  Institute  Policies 

While  institutes  in  Pennsylvania  are  not  voluntary  organizations, 
the  county  institute  did  spring  from  voluntary  county  associations 
in  Pa.  The  law  (Section  2101,  School  Law  of  Pa.)  rather  con- 
templates that  teachers — "properly  authorized  committees  of 
teachers" — shall  assist  in  organizing  the  teachers'  institutes.  Accord- 
ingly, it  is  worth  while  to  know  the  status  of  teacher  participation  in 
the  organization  of  institutes  in  this  state.  To  what  e.xtent  do 
teachers  contribute  either  in  the  active  management  of  the  county 
institute,  or  to  what  extent  are  they  organized  to  carry  out  the  work 
of  the  institute?  This  status  can  be  determined  largely  from  the 
organization  of  committees  and  other  groups  found. 

County  Institute  Committees 

In  all  but  three  of  the  counties  there  were  found  some  committees, 
varying  in  number  from  1  to  9.  In  only  11  counties  was  there  found 
any  e.xecutive  committee  or  its  equivalent.  Such  a  committee  would 
be  the  one  immediately  concerned  or  involved  in  teacher  participa- 
tion, or  in  assisting  in  the  administration  and  planning  for  the 
institute.  \\'e  find  that  the  dead  were  important  enough  to  have 
necrology  or  memorial  committees  in  28  of  the  53  counties  studied 
in  1920,  while  46  counties  had  resolutions  committee.  Seventeen 
(17)  counties  had  committees  on  professional  reading  and  literature, 
while  16  had  committees  on  educational  associations  and  meetings. 
One  county  had  a  committee  on  "field  day";  one  on  high  school 
entrance;  several  on  local  institutes;  two  on  "School  Patrons'  Day"; 
one  on  "local  history";  one  county  had  a  committee  on  "Educational 
Research"  (Somerset).  It  would  be  interesting  to  know  what  this 
committee  does,  for  it  indicates  a  healthy  sign.  In  only  one  county, 
however,  was  there  a  committee  whose  chief  business  was  the  county 
institute.  A  committee  on  "The  Improvement  of  the  Institute" 
was  found  in  Chester  County.  A  careful  study  of  the  institute 
program  of  this  county  reveals  that  this  committee  has  evidently 
functioned.  The  institute  offerings  of  Chester  County  are  easily 
among  the  three  best  in  the  state.  In  Montgomery  county  the  E.xecu- 
tive Committee  has  for  the  past  few  years  taken  an  important  part 
in  institute  programs  and  policies,  with  very  good  results  in 
strengthening  the  program  and  general  institute  policy. 


I 


60 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 


Institute  Program  Making 

The  task  of  making  the  institute  program  is  a  difficult  one,  not 
only  on  account  of  arranging  the  subjects  to  be  discussed,  the  fields 
to  be  covered,  and  the  specific  needs  of  the  hour,  but  because  of 
the  lack  of  a  central  clearing  house  for  the  securing  of  instructors. 
Perhaps,  one  of  the  biggest  problems  of  the  superintendent  is  the 
securing  of  his  "talent."  He  must  depend  more  or  less  on  his  fellow 
superintendents'  report  of  instructors  whom  they  have  had  and  whom 
they  can  recommend.  Hence  it  is  that  instructors  circulate  pretty 
well  around  the  state  institutes  in  proportion  to  their  good  reports. 
Since  the  advent  of  the  new  administration  this  problem  has  been 
somewhat  simplified  because  the  Department  of  Public  Instruction 
has  been  able  to  supply  many  of  the  instructors  in  order  that  they 
might  explain  the  plans  of  the  Department.  But  the  securing  of  the 
right  type  of  institute  instructors  is  such  a  difficult  task  that  one 
State  Commissioner  of  Education  has  suggested  that,  as  is  the  case 
in  some  Western  States,  institute  instructors  be  licensed  and  the 
Department  act  as  a  central  disbursing  agency  for  these  men. 

In  view  of  this  difficulty  it  is  of  some  concern  to  know  to  what 
extent  teachers  share  in  the  making  of  programs  for  the  institute. 
Teacher  participation  thru  various  devices  is  to-day  an  important 
consideration  in  the  professional  growth  of  teachers.  Does  the 
institute  offer  any  opportunity  in  co-operative  teacher  assistance 
in  such  a  matter  as  the  making  of  the  program?  Are  they  con- 
sulted about  institute  programs — a  different  matter  from  teacher 
participation?  In  1919  the  county  superintendents  furnished  some 
interesting  data: 

a.  County  Superintendents  alone  make  program  in  42  counties. 

b.  County  Superintendents  and  a  committee  make  program  in  8  counties. 

c.  County  Superintendents  and  a  committee  of  principals  make  program  in  6 
counties. 

d.  County  Superintendents  and  an  Executive  Committee  make  program  in  7 
counties. 

e.  County  Superintendents  consult  with  their  assistants  in  10  counties. 

f .  County  Superintendents  with  committee  of  principals,  teachers,  and  directors 
in  1  county. 

It  is  evident  from  these  data  that  the  teachers  of  the  counties  are 
little  consulted  except  to  confirm  programs  already  made.  No  doubt, 
the  county  superintendents  to-day  consult  their  assistants  more  than 
these  data  show. 


COUNIY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  61 

Only  twenty-four  county  superintendents  answered  the  question 
as  to  whether  or  not  rural  teachers  are  consulted  about  the  programs 
designed  for  their  own  particular  needs.  Of  these  twenty-four,  ten 
said  they  did  not;  fourteen,  yes.  Forty-two  did  not  answer  this 
inquiry,  a  fair  indication  that  they  did  not.  In  several  counties  pre- 
institute  meetings  are  held  when  the  tentative  rural  program  is 
presented.  In  a  few  counties  the  teachers  are  asked  to  offer  sugges- 
tions on  cards  issued  for  that  purpose — a  practice  which  seems 
worthy  of  imitation. 

The  fact  remains,  however,  that  there  does  not  seem  to  be  any 
regularly  appointed  agency  to  represent  the  rank  and  file  in  the 
making  of  institute  programs.  To  what  extent  this  failure  affects 
the  nature  of  the  institute  offerings,  this  study  is  not  able  to  point 
out.  Undoubtedly,  such  definite  representation  would  give  strength 
to  the  institute  as  an  organization  and  make  of  it  not  only  a  legal, 
but  also  a  co-operative  association  of  teachers. 

The  department  or  sectional  programs  likewise  show  this  same 
lack  of  teacher  participation  in  their  arrangements.  Out  of  30 
counties  where  such  meetings  were  held,  nine  failed  to  answer  the 
inquiry.  In  13  counties  the  superintendent  made  the  department 
programs;  in  4  the  superintendent  and  his  assistants;  in  4  counties 
the  superintendent  and  principals  arranged  the  programs.  And  yet 
in  this  field  of  grouping  teachers  together  according  to  their  own 
particular  fields  lies  the  opportunity  to  organize  effectively.'  It  is 
this  lack  of  representation  that  in  all  probability  gives  the  institute 
and  the  department  programs  that  represent  the  professional  activi- 
ties of  the  instructors  secured,  rather  than  that  these  programs  and 
departments  provide  for  strictly  local  needs  to  be  met  by  securing 
instructors  for  the  purpose. 

Methods  of  Instruction 
The  Table  XI  below  reflects  the  attitude  of  county  superinten- 
dents on  the  type  or  method  of  instruction  used.  Fifty-three  of  these 
officials  report  that  the  lecture  method  is  most  extensively  used  in  the 
general  sessions;  seventeen  report  demonstration  classes  in  the 
general  sessions,  and  21  in  the  departmental  meetings;  only  two 
report  the  round  table  conference  plan.  The  attitude  of  the  county 
officials  coincides  with  the  desires  of  teachers  in  the  type  of  instruc- 

•  Snedden,  D.  "Professional  Improvement  of  Teachers  thru  Organization," 
School  and  Society,  Nov.  8,  1919,  p.  533. 


62  COUNTY  teachers'  institutes  in  PENNSYLVANIA 

tion  desired.  Fifty  per  cent  of  the  teachers  in  12  counties  prefer 
the  lecture  method;  34  per  cent  prefer  the  demonstration  class 
method,  while  16  per  cent  prefer  the  conference  and  discussion  plan. 
In  view  of  the  fact  that  in  at  least  80  per  cent  of  all  the  institutes 
in  the  general  and  departmental  sessions  the  lecture  method  alone  is 
used  it  is  pertinent  to  suggest  that  the  other  two  methods — demon- 
stration and  conference — be  used  more  especially  so  since  1344 
teachers  out  of  2710  in  12  counties  and  four  districts  express  a  prefer- 
ence for  these  types. 

Table  XI — Type  or  Method  of  iNStRUCTiON  Employed 
(Superintendents) 

a.  53  report  lecture  method  alone  in  General  Sessions. 

b.  12  report  lecture  method  alone  in  Departmental  sections. 

c.  17  report  demonstration  method  or  lessons  in  General  Sessions. 

d.  21  report  demonstration  lessons  in  Departmental  Sections. 

e.  9  report  lecture  and  discussions  in  General  Sessions. 

f.  27  report  lecture  and  discussions  in  Departmental  Sections. 

g.  2  report  Round  Table  Conferences. 

h.  1  reports  voluntary  conferences  and  instruction  in  special  subjects  before  and 
after  the  regular  sessions. 

It  is  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  teachers  place  much  stress  on  their 
preferences  for  the  ideal  aim  of  the  institute  on  methods  of  instruc- 
tion. (Table  VI,  Chapter  II,  "Institute  Aims").  Methods  of  in- 
struction can  be  made  much  more  eflfective  when  demonstrated. 
The  hope  of  improving  the  institute  program  seems  to  lie  largely  in 
giving  teachers  demonstration  work  with  classes  of  children  in  pro- 
gressive and  modern  methods.  It  is  significant  that  this  type  of 
institute  program  has  already  been  attempted  in  the  Allentown  City 
institute.^  This  institute  stressed  Demonstrations  and  Conferences, 
which  are  preferred  by  50  per  cent  of  the  2710  teachers  answering 
this  question.  That  the  county  institute  program  is  deficient  in 
Demonstration  and  Conference  methods  is  very  plainly  evident 
from  an  examination  of  Table  XI,  which  gives  the  county  superin- 
tendents' reports. 

Type  of  Instruction  Preferred  by  Teachers 

In  11  counties  and  4  districts  2710  answers  were  received  on  the 
question  as  to  the  type  of  instruction  teachers  prefer.     It  is  very 

*  Dodd,  H.  W.,  "A  Different  Kind  of  Institute,"  Penna.  School  Journal,  Feb. 
1922,  pp.  203-205. 


COUNTY  TEACHERS    INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 


63 


evident  that  the  majority  prefer  the  lecture  method.     Table  XII 
gives  the  result  of  this  preferential. 

From  Table  XII  it  is  evident  that  50%  of  those  answering  this 
question  preferred  the  lecture  method;  34%  the  demonstration 
method,  and  15%  the  conference  method,  or  conference-discussion 
method.     It  is  not  the  purpose  here  to  discuss  the  relative  values  of 

Table  XII — Method  of  Instruction  Preferred 


County 

Lecture 

Demonstra- 
tion 

Conference- 
Discussion 

Bucks 

M5 

184 
42 
94 
48 
62 

184 
51 
37 
51 

2M 

36 

177 

111 

111 

40 

86 

144 

36 

53 

33 

67 

6 

Berks 

91 

Chester 

63 

Clearfield 

16 

Delaware 

36 

Monroe 

15 

Northampton 

58 

Northumberland 

12 

Perr>' 

18 

Susquehanna 

21 

Westmoreland 

46 

1319 

874 

382 

Districts 

Abington 

21 

8 

8 

10 

20 

5 

13 

16 

10 

Beaver 

1 

Kane 

12 

Lock  Haven 

8 

47 

54 

31 

Total 

l.W) 

928 

413-2707 



any  of  these  methods  of  presenting  instruction  to  a  group  of  teachers, 
but  in  the  light  of  these  re])lies  we  are  confronted  with  the  inquiry  as 
to  whether  or  not  teachers  really  appreciate  the  possibilities  and 
values  of  the  institute  when  they  to  the  extent  of  50%  of  their 
number  in  the  11  counties  where  the  poll  was  taken  prefer  a  method 


64 


COUNTY  TEACHERS    INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 


of  instruction  where  so  little  thinking  on  their  part  is  necessary  and 
where  the  possibilities  of  asking  questions  and  of  having  their  own 
problems  answered  are  so  little.  Are  teachers  following  the  paths 
of  little  resistance?  Should  small  groups  or  discussion  conferences 
be  organized  in  our  institutes  in  order  that  teachers  may  receive 
some  real  human  and  tangible  help?  Or  are  teachers  going  to  be 
merely  receptacles  for  lecturers'  stereotyped  addresses,  a  good  many 
of  them  platitudes  on  the  virtues  of  the  profession  and  "glory  of  the 
work  we  are  engaged  in?"  However,  there  is  some  hope  when  we 
consider  that  nearly  50%  have  voted  for  the  demonstration  and 
conference  plans. 

Provisions  for  Special  Classes  of  Teachers 
If  institutes  are   designed   to   meet  specific  needs   of   teachers, 
various  classes  of  teachers  are  to  be  provided  for.    That  is  the  main 
object  of  the  sectional  institute.    Does  the  institute  do  this?    Table 
XIII  below  shows  that  this  is  not  done. 

Table  XIII — Provisions  for  Special  Classes  of  Teachers^ 


Yes 

No 

No  answer 

a 

The  Inexperienced 

24 

35 
37 

37 
29 
28 
25 

5 

b 

Grade  Teachers 

4 

r 

One  Room  Rural 

3 

(\ 

High  School 

4 

It  is  very  evident  that  in  at  least  50%  of  the  counties  no  provision 
is  made  for  special  direction  for  the  inexperienced  teacher,  grade 
teachers,  the  one  room  rural  and  the  high  school.  This  is  a  good  test 
of  the  efficiency  and  function  of  the  institute.  The  county  superin- 
tendents themselves  furnished  these  data  in  1919.  Recent  programs 
(see  Chapter  on  Programs)  show  no  improvement  in  this  respect, 
altho  it  is  natural  to  conclude  that  dividing  the  institute  into  sections 
for  certain  groups  of  teachers  will  provide  to  a  greater  degree  mate- 
rials intended  more  especially  f or^  particular  groups.  The  difficulty 
here,  however,  as  is  pointed  out  in  the  chapter  on  "The  Pro- 
gram" is  the  use  of  the  same  instructors  for  the  general  sessions 
and  sectional  meetings,  many  of  whom  are  not  especially  adapted 
for  sectional  work. 

*  Note:  These  replies  were  checked  up  as  much  as  possible  with  the  program  of 
each  county.   Much  charity  was  used  in  crediting  "yes"  as  the  answer  in  many  cases. 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  65 

Below  are  given  examples  of  special  provisions  and  opportunities 
for  these  groups  of  teachers: 

Examples  of  Special  Provisions  for  Inexptricnced  Teachers — Grade,  Rural,  ami  High 
School  as  Reported  by  County  Superinkndcnls,  1919 

"Preliminary  conference  of  one  whole  day  immediately  before  opening  of  schools — 
not  in  connection  with  the  county  institute.  Departmental  sessions  in  connection 
with  county  institute.  .\  conference  of  one  whole  day  before  the  meeting  of  the  county 
institute." 

"An  attempt  is  made  to  make  the  program  helpful  to  teachers  of  all  grades. 
Book  and  supplies  are  on  sale  during  week." 

"We  hold  a  week  of  teacher  training  or  week  of  method.  We  have  special  depart- 
ments for  inexperienced  teachers.  This  work  is  largel)'  conducted  by  our  own  force 
supplemented  by  practical  primar>-  methods." 

"At  times  we  have  a  speciaUst  in  method  in  some  particular  subject.  Much  of 
the  work  is  inspirational." 

"Demonstration  lessons  by  successful  teachers.  Special  conferences  for  them." 
M  least  one  instructor  capable  of  conducting  round  table  conferences." 

"For  rural  inexperiences,  a  special  department  for  those  teaching  first  or  second 
year  is  addressed  by  specialists  in  primar>';  also  volunteer  groups;  also  conferences  with 
Assistant  Superintendent,  Sections  are  as  follows:  Grades  1-2,  3-4,  5-6,  7-8,  High: 
Rural  1,  Rural  II;  also  a  special  section  (four  half  daj's)  for  rural  teachers  with  more 
than  two  years  e.xperience;  a  high  school  section.  This  is  not  going  far  enough.  This 
year  we  had  one  hour  each  for  English,  Latin,  Civics,  and  Commercial  teachers." 

"We  do  this  in  School  of  Methods  and  local  institutes." 

"Large  part  of  program  is  adapted  for  grade  and  one  room  teachers." 

"We  have  a  very  small  group.  First  and  Second  grade  teachers  in  one  section, 
third  and  fourth  in  another,  fifth  and  sixth  in  another  and  high  school." 

"We  hold  two  day  session  of  school  of  methotls  in  .\ugust  specially  for  beginners." 

"Preliminary  Institute." 

"One  session  for  beginners." 

"Six  forty-five  minute  periods  are  given  for  the  instruction  of  grade  teachers. 
All  the  teachers  of  the  rural  one  room  schools  are  given  six  forty-five  minute  periods. 
Six  forty-five  minute  periods  for  high  school  teachers." 

"In  a  general  way  we  make  special  provisions  for  the  different  grades  of  teachers." 

"Sectional  work  for  first  and  second  grades,  third  and  fourth  grades,  grammar 
grades;  sectional  work  for  rural  teachers;  sectional  work  for  high  school  teachers  and  a 
meeting  of  high  school  teachers'  association." 

"We  conduct  for  three  or  four  days  a  school  of  methods  the  week  before  the 
schools  open." 

"We  make  provision  thru  our  school  of  methods,  also  by  making  the  instruction 
practical." 

"I  provide  for  them  in  making  up  program.  I  don't  employ  'wind  gammers,' 
I  get  instructors.  .Ml  grade  teachers  are  divided  into  these  departments,  primar>', 
intermediate,  and  grammar.  Part  of  the  instruction  in  Rural  Department  deals  with 
this  phase  alone.    We  give  ihem  a  department  by  themselves." 


66  COUNTY  teachers'  institutes  in  PENNSYLVANIA 

"We  hold  a  session  lasting  at  least  a  full  week  before  school  opens  for  beginners. 
Our  sectional  meetings  are  always  for  graded  work.  By  gi\'ing  definite  instruction  to 
these  in  separate  groups." 

The  Institute  Schedule — Distribution  of  Time 

The  wise  and  economical  use  of  time  is  an  important  considera- 
tion in  any  modern  enterprise,  whether  industrial  or  educational  or 
commercial.  It  is  a  well  known  principle  of  modern  efficiency  that 
lost  motion  and  poor  scheduling  make  for  waste  and  inefficiency. 
This  is  known  as  the  principle  of  despatching,^  which  presupposes 
careful  planning  in  advance  and  then  the  realization  of  this  plan. 
Closely  allied  with  this  principle  of  despatching  is  the  principle  of 
"standards  and  schedules,"^  or  that  of  clearly  defining  what  is  to 
be  expected  and  then  the  carrying  out  of  this  plan  punctually,  accord- 
ing to  a  set  program.  Definite  planning  and  scheduling  are  funda- 
mental to  the  execution  of  any  aim. 

A  careful  examination  of  the  scheduled  programs  of  53  county 
institutes  held  in  1920  does  not,  except  in  a  very  few  instances, 
indicate  that  the  principles  of  dispatch,  and  of  standards  and 
schedules  are  carried  out  to  any  extent.  We  are  told  by  Emerson^ 
that  "the  general  dispatching  efficiency,  even  of  railroads,  is  not  over 
40  per  cent,  yet  there  are  few  activities  that  do  as  well  as  railroads." 
While  it  would  be  a  rash  thing  to  state  the  exact  per  ct.  of  efficiency 
of  institutes  in  the  matter  of  scheduling,  we  are  almost  led  to  say 
with  this  authority  in  his  comments  on  early  railroad  dispatching, 
that  institute  programs  "started  when  they  got  ready,  they  arrived 
some  time,  and  nobody  knew  where  they  were  nor  what  route 
they  were  taking  in  between." 

Analysis  of  Time  Schedules  in  Institutes 

In  31  counties  out  of  53  no  specific  time  assignments  for  addresses 
are  found;  in  22  there  was  such  assignment.  It  is,  therefore,  impos- 
sible to  determine  in  31  counties  whether  a  speaker  was  limited  to 
one-half  hour,  three-fourths  of  an  hour,  or  an  hour.  In  the  23 
counties  where  specific  time  assignments  were  indicated,  14  allowed 
40  to  45  minutes  per  period;  4  allowed  30  to  35  minutes;  3  allowed  50 
minutes;  in  remaining  counties  time  was  indefinite  and  variable. 

*  Emerson,  Harrington,  "Twelve  Principles  of  Efficiencj'." 
^  Emerson,  Harrington,  "Twelve  Principles  of  Efficiency." 

*  Emerson,  Harrington,  "Twelve  Principles  of  Efhciency,"  pp.  250-51. 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  67 

The  number  of  institute  periods  varied  very  little  in  most  of  the 
counties  studied.  The  usual  number  seems  to  be  three  (3)  in  the 
morning,  and  the  same  number  in  the  afternoon,  exclusive  of  the 
instructional  periods  in  the  sections.  Twenty-one  (21)  report  3 
addresses  in  the  morning;  17  two.  The  others  vary  so  much  that  no 
summary  is  possible.  In  the  afternoon  twenty  (20)  report  two 
each;  twenty-five  (25)  three  each.  The  others  vary  from  1  to  4. 
These  instructional  periods  do  not  include  music  and  intermission 
periods,  many  of  which  are  found  in  some  counties. 

The  time  of  opening  in  the  morning  seems  to  be  pretty  uniform. 
Thirty-eight  of  the  53  open  at  9  o'clock;  six  at  9:15;  two  at  8:30; 
five  at  9:30;  one  at  8:45;  one  at  8  o'clock.  With  very  few  exceptions 
the  institutes  open  in  the  afternoon  at  1:30,  although  a  few  convene 
at  1 :45  or  two  o'clock.  The  institutes  invariably  continue  until  1 1 :45 
to  12  in  the  morning,  and  until  3:30  to  4  in  the  afternoon. 

Sections  and  Time  Schedule 

An  examination  of  the  programs  shows  that  the  Pennsylvania 
institute  is  gradually  increasing  in  the  tendency  to  sectionalize. 
This  tendency,  however,  is  more  apparent  than  real  when  an  exami- 
nation of  the  time  assigned  to  sections  is  made.  Twenty-nine  (29) 
of  the  fifty-three  counties  studied  in  1920  show  evidences  of  sections 
or  departments.  In  only  7  of  the  counties  were  sectional  meetings 
held  parts  of  the  morning  and  afternoons.  The  time  when  sectional 
meetings  begin  varies  too  much  to  generalize.  However,  about 
one-third  of  the  counties  that  have  such  meetings,  schedule  them 
from  10  o'clock  on;  several  at  11  o'clock.  In  14  of  the  29  counties, 
at  least  one  or  two  addresses  are  delivered  to  the  entire  group  before 
the  institute  adjourns  for  the  assembUng  of  sections,  both  in  the 
morning  and  afternoon.  In  only  a  few  counties  docs  there  seem  to  be 
a  dctinite  scheme  of  systemmatic  time  scheduling  for  the  sectional 
meetings,  resulting,  it  would  appear,  in  much  confusion  and  waste  of 
time  in  breaking  up  the  institute  for  these  meetings.  A  better  plan 
of  scheduling  would  be  the  specific  use  of  the  morning  or  afternoon 
for  either  the  general  session  or  for  the  sectional  meetings.  In  several 
counties  where  effort  was  centered  on  all  sectional  meetings,  one 
general  address  was  offered  early  in  the  morning  or  afternoon  session, 
followed  by  the  assembling  of  the  department  meetings.  That  the 
institute  should  at  some  time  or  other  in  the  day  meet  as  one  group 
in  order  to  carry  out  the  general  orders  and  directions  of  the  superin- 


68  COUNTY  teachers'  institutes  in  PENNSYLVANIA 

tendent  and  in  order  to  maintain  the  general  spirit  of  professional 
solidarity  cannot  be  questioned. 

In  no  institute  studied  did  it  appear  that  more  than  3  days  or  parts 
of  days  were  devoted  to  sectional  work.  These  days  were  Tuesday, 
Wednesday,  and  Thursday,  usually  the  forenoons.  In  9  counties 
this  prevailed.  In  many  counties  only  a  few  hours  in  the  entire 
week  were  assigned  to  sections.  In  one  or  two  counties  sectional 
meetings  were  announced  on  the  program,  but  there  was  no  assign- 
ment of  place  or  time.  In  fact,  many  sectional  meetings  even  failed 
to  name  the  place  of  meeting.  Of  course,  it  is  realized  that  certain 
details  of  the  institute  might  be  and  are  announced  verbally.  It 
is  to  be  questioned  though  whether  or  not  institute  programs  should 
not  be  presented  to  teachers  in  a  more  definite  way,  particularly  so  if 
it  is  a  departmentalize  institute.  Teachers  should  have  the  oppor- 
tunity of  selecting  in  advance  the  work  that  they  desire  to  take. 
It  may  be  a  wise  thing  for  teachers  actually  to  make  out  a  program 
of  what  they  want  to  do  for  the  entire  week.  This  was  actully 
done  at  the  model  institute^  held  for  experimental  purposes  at  the 
University  of  IlHnois,  Aug.  3-7,  1914.  One  of  the  outstanding  char- 
acteristics of  this  experimental  institute  was  the  definiteness  of  its 
daily  program.  The  periods  were  45  minutes  in  the  clear.  Each 
instructor  developed  his  week's  work  in  one  field  of  instruction,  and 
outlined  his  work,  which  was  presented  to  teachers  so  that  they  knew 
what  to  prepare  for  and  how  to  follow  it  up.  Examinations  were 
given  at  the  end  of  the  week;  note  books  were  examined.  Another 
feature  of  this  same  institute  was  the  daily  conference  held  by  the 
instructors,  the  superintendents,  and  the  conductor.  The  day's 
work  was  reviewed  and  discussed. 

Great  Waste  of  Time 

An  outstanding  feature  of  nearly  all  the  institute  programs  studied 
is  the  disproportionate  time  spent  on  music  and  "intermissions." 
The  music  was  of  the  usual  "drill"  t}^e,  where  a  few  songs  were 
selected  and  then  constantly  "roted"  thru.  There  appears  to  be  no 
evidence  that  a  really  worth  while  piece  of  work  was  done  on  any 
serious  selection  so  that  the  one  week's  work  would  show  some 
results.    In  Delaware  county  it  was  the  writer's  privilege  to  observe 

9  Report  "Conference  Teachers'  Institute,"  Univ.  TU.,  Bull.  No.  11,  Published 
by  University  of  Illinois. 


COUNTY  TEACHEKS'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  69 

the  result  of  such  work  on  such  a  selection  so  that  at  the  end  of  the 
week,  the  teachers  had  actually  prepared  a  definite  piece  of  work. 
This  type  of  work  not  only  gave  rest  and  recreation,  hut  developed 
co-operative  group  action  thru  music. 

Two  counties  were  selected  at  random  and  carefully  analyzed  to 
see  how  much  the  institute  had  "planned"  to  spend  on  these  two 
items — music  and  "intermissions."  It  was  found  that  in  one  county 
nine  (9)  hours  out  of  22  were  thus  spent;  in  the  other  5  out  of  17)^. 
This  means  that  40  per  cent  in  one  and  30  per  cent  of  the  time  in  the 
other  were  thus  consumed.  We  cannot  deny  that  music  is  necessary 
in  the  institute  and  also  a  certain  amount  of  "intermission."  It  is 
very  questionable,  however,  whether  such  a  large  per  cent,  of  the  time 
should  be  so  used.  It  is  not  far  from  mathematical  accuracy  to  esti- 
mate that  25  per  cent  of  the  institutes'  time  is  used  up  in  this  fashion. 

In  accordance  with  the  archaic  provision  of  the  county  institute 
law  allowing  one-half  day  on  Monday  and  one-half  day  on  Friday 
for  going  to  and  returning  from  the  institute, — a  necessary  provision 
before  the  days  of  rapid  transit — all  but  two  of  the  county  institutes 
in  1920  convened  Monday  afternoon;  all  but  four  adjourned  Friday 
noon.  Bucks,  Indiana,  Green,  and  Lebanon  continued  until  the  end 
of  Friday  afternoon.  Thus  it  happens  that  in  the  actual  observance 
of  the  law,  the  county  institute  wastes  20  per  cent  of  the  time  in 
transit,  while  at  least  25  per  cent  of  the  time  scheduled  is  consumed 
by  the  two  items  already  mentioned.  In  accordance  with  the  com- 
monly accepted  principles  of  efficiency  already  alluded  to — costs 
and  dispatching — we  must  conclude  that  county  institutes  do  not 
utilize  their  time  to  the  best  possible  advantage.  Fully  one-fourth, 
possibly  one-third,  is  wasted,  which  in  terms  of  dollars  and  cents, 
amounts  to  the  enormous  amount  of  one  cjuarter  million  of  dollars. 
This  instantly  raises  the  question  whether  or  not  by  more  efficient 
scheduling  of  the  program,  and  by  the  elimination  of  much  extraneous 
matter  that  creeps  into  the  institute  program,  the  same  amount  of 
institute  work  could  not  be  accomplished  in  two  or  three  days 
instead  of  five,  and  at  greater  economy  of  teachers'  nervous  energy 
and  time  and  money. 

The  Evening  Sessions 

One  of  the  strongest  claims  of  the  county  institute  has  been  its 
influence  on  the  public  thru  its  evening  sessions.  Gradually,  how- 
ever, the  evening  session  is  becoming  a  thing  of  the  past.     This  is 


70  COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 

due  in  a  large  measure  to  modern  conditions  and  facilities  for  trans- 
portation. In  many  counties  the  teachers  do  not  remain  over  night 
in  the  county  seat,  but  travel  back  and  forth  by  train,  trolley,  and 
automobile  in  order  to  cut  down  the  expenses  of  attending  the 
institute.  Then,  too,  the  evening  session  is  finding  it  a  difficult  mat- 
ter to  compete  with  other  attractions.  This  is  particularly  true  where 
the  institute  is  held  in  fairly  large  communities.  The  inroads  of  the 
moving  picture  show  has  had  its  effects  on  these  once  popular  ses- 
sions. In  1917  eleven  of  the  66  counties  no  longer  held  evening 
sessions.  Seven  institutes  had  only  two;  six  had  three;  thirty-five 
had  4;  while  5  alone  had  five  each.  Of  the  forty-four  district  insti- 
tutes held,  fourteen  had  no  evening  sessions  at  all,  while  10  had  one 
each;  five  had  two;  five  had  three;  one  had  four;  five  had  five  each. 

To  show  how  important  a  bearing  good  transportation  facilities 
have  on  evening  session,  it  may  be  said  that  11  of  the  12  counties 
that  report  very  good  transportation  facilities  have  abolished  the 
evening  sessions;  twenty-two  counties  report  good  transportation 
facilities  to  the  place  of  meeting;  thirteen  fair;  fifteen  poor.  Natur- 
ally, evening  sessions  are  still  popular  in  those  county  seats  that  are 
far  removed  from  large  centers  of  population,  or  where  a  definite 
and  permanent  interest  in  these  sessions  has  become  a  tradition. 

The  attitude  of  the  teachers  and  the  public  towards  evening 
sessions  as  gauged  by  the  county  superintendents  is  as  follows: 

Forty-six  county  superintendents  think  that  the  public  is  in  favor 
of  evening  sessions,  fifteen  think  it  is  not,  while  five  are  either  doubt- 
ful or  do  not  express  themselves.  Fifty-five  county  superintendents 
think  that  the  teachers  are  in  favor  of  these  sessions,  while  11  think 
they  are  not  in  favor.  Here  again  the  opinion  and  wishes  of  the  2358 
teachers  who  expressed  their  attitude  on  this  is  important.  (See 
Table  XIV.) 

The  table  shows  that  1500  or  63  per  cent  out  of  2358  teachers 
favor  evening  sessions.  A  further  analysis  of  their  replies  shows 
that  a  very  large  majority  prefer  one  serious  and  one  light  lecture; 
while  500  express  preference  for  at  least  one  entertainment,  852 
prefer  two  entertainments.  A  fairly  representative  group  express 
themselves  as  being  in  favor  of  high  class  musical  entertainments. 

Of  the  12  counties  where  the  questionnaire  was  presented,  only 
two  where  fairly  good  transportation  facilities  exist,  answered  favor- 
ably to  the  evening  session;  the  remaining  ten  expressed  rather  pro- 
nounced sentiment  in  favor  of  the  evening  sessions.     These  two 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 


71 


Table  XIV — Evening  Sessions  (Teachers) 


Pref.  Evg. 
Session 
County                        Yes        No 

Serious  Lect. 

Number 
I     II     III  IV 

Light  Lect. 

Number 
I     II     III  IV 

Entertainments 
Number 
I     II   III    IV 

Berks 60 

Bucks 373         1 

Chester.  .  .                         29       10 

Clearfield 244       15 

Delaware. .                        25      57 

123     20     ..      .. 
119  160    36      4 

57       6     .  .      .  . 
Ill     89     11       2 

12      6      2     .. 

48     10     .  .      .  . 

36      4     .  .      .  . 

47     19       2     .. 

9       6       11 

32     27       3     .. 

116    95     12      3 

79     16      8     .  . 
182  106      4      4 

62       9     ..      .. 
139     18       5     .. 

15      3       1     .. 

29  22     ..      .. 

18     13       2     .. 

30  8     ..      .. 

31  3     ..      .. 
26       2     ..      .. 

146    24       1     .. 

82     96    39      9 
42  240    63      2 
62     71      3    .. 
41  l(A     13      3 
12     10     ..     .. 

Monroe 115         9 

Montgomer>''» 140     294 

Northampton 71     205 

Northumberland ....       95 

Perry 63         1 

Susquehanna 9 

Westmoreland 252       15 

36    46     ..     .. 

23     19      4    .. 
29    52      7      3 
10    36      1    .. 
31     31       2    .. 
125    87      8    .. 

1436     667 

710  442     67     10 

757  224    21       4 

493  852  140    17 

Districls 

Abington 15       31 

Beaver 7        5 

Kane 20       10 

Lock  Haven 22       10 

6      6     ..      .. 

7     ..      .. 
14      5     .  .      .  . 
14      6       2     .. 

7      4     ..      .. 

5     

7     

15      2     ..      .. 

7       7     ..     .. 
2      3     ..     .. 

10  7       1    .. 

11  10       1    .. 

(A      56 

34    24      2     .. 

34      6     ..      .. 

30    27      2    .. 

Total 1500    723 

744  466     69     10 

791  230    21       4 

523  879  142    17 

counties  are  Bucks,  and  Westmoreland.  Counties  like  Northamp- 
ton, Delaware,  and  Montgomery,  with  good  transportation  facilities 
and  with  populous  centers  and  near  large  cities,  were  decidedly 
opposed  to  evening  sessions. 

In  the  chapter  on  the  finances  of  the  county  institutes  the  relation 
of  the  evening  sessions  to  finances  is  discussed.  It  is  there  shown 
that  the  evening  sessions  are  not  self  supporting.  In  the  reports  of 
the  county  superintendents  for  1918  slate  report,  nine  counties  do 
not  report  any  expenditures  for  evening  lectures  and  entertainments, 
while  28  counties  do  not  report  any  proceeds  from  such  entertain- 
ments, etc.,  a  pretty  clear  indication   that  nineteen  counties  are 

"*Montgomcr>':  Number  who  favored: 

SESSIONS     I       II       III        iV        V 
3      42       51         24         15 


72  COUNTY  teachers'  institutes  in  PENNSYLVANIA 

conducting   these  evening  entertainments  at  a  loss,   which   means 
that  the  public  is  not  responding. 

Fifty-five  county  superintendents  have  given  their  reasons  for 
favoring  or  opposing  evening  sessions  of  the  institute.  Ten  of  the 
55  county  superintendents  who  answered  this  question  give  reasons 
for  opposing  the  holding  of  evening  sessions.  The  main  reasons 
given  by  these  are: — The  institute  can't  compete  with  the  theatres; 
that  they  want  their  teachers  to  be  fresh  the  next  day;  that  many 
teachers  go  home;  that  instruction  during  the  day  is  heavy;  that 
evening  sessions  are  not  popular  with  the  teachers  in  their  own  coun- 
ties. (This  judgment  does  not  agree  with  the  result  of  the  poll 
revealed  in  twelve  counties  where  63%  of  the  teachers  answering 
this  question  favored  evening  sessions.)  The  most  weighty  reason, 
however,  given  by  the  county  superintendents  against  the  holding  of 
evening  sessions  is  the  difficulty  of  financing  evening  sessions  where 
the  public  support  is  inadequate  on  account  of  other  competitive 
attractions. 

"Did  you  Ever." 
"From  A  to  Z." 
"Growth  at  Zero  Hour." 
"The  Middle  of  the  Road." 
"Romantic  Cahfornia." 
"Winding  the  Clock." 
"Life's  Levels." 
"The  Comrade  in  While." 
"Following  the  Gleam." 
"A  King  in  the  Wilderness." 

Contrast  these  with  subjects  selected  almost  at  random  from 
recent  sessions  of  the  Pennsylvania  State  Educational  Association 
and  the  lack  of  suggestively  worth  while  contents  will  be  apparent. 

A  nalysis  of  Personnel 

Two  years'  programs  were  analyzed,  fifty  three  for  1919  and  the 
same  number  for  1920.  The  programs  for  1919  were  examined  more 
in  detail  than  those  of  the  following  year.  The  main  purpose  in 
analyzing  the  personnel  of  the  programs  for  1920  was  to  determine 
to  what  extent  representatives  of  the  State  Department  had  in- 
creased and  their  possible  affect  on  the  institute  program. 

A  close  analysis  of  the  personnel  shows  that  50%  of  the  instruc- 
tors are  actively  engaged  in  teaching  or  in  school  administrative 
work;  24%  represent  some  phase  of  governmental  activity  or  other 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 


73 


Table  XV— Personnel— 1919 
(Total  Number  of  Instructors— 329) 


mber 

Per  Cent 

Total 

23 

7. 

74 

22.5 

22 

7. 

31 

9.4 

8 

2.4 

24 

7. 

15 

5. 

10 

3. 

3 

1. 

1 

.3 

0 

0. 

8 

2.4 

4 

1.2 

14 

4.2 

1 

0.3 

3 

1. 

37 

11.2 

45 

13.7 

6 

1.8 

Professional  Lecturers 

College  Teachers 

Normal  School  Teachers 

Normal  School  Principals 

Public  Men 

Representatives  Department  Public  Instruction. 

School  Superintendents 

County  Superintendents 

Klcmentar>-  School  Teachers 

High  School  Teachers 

Rural  School  Teachers 

Supervisors  Special  Subjects  or  Dept 

Authors 

Representative  Red  Cross 

Representatives  Gov't.  U.  S 

R representatives  Gov't.  Pa 

Physicians  (many  Co.  Health  Officers) 

Music  Directors 

Miscellaneous 


329 


100. 


organizations  attempting  to  carry  out  their  work  thru  the  public 
schools;  the  per  centum  of  the  so-called  "professional"  lecturer  is 
only  7.  This  type  of  institute  instructor  is  gradually  disappearing, 
tho  those  included  among  the  23  are  very  well  known.  More  than  one- 
half  of  the  Normal  School  teachers  who  were  on  the  programs  were 
principals  of  the  schools  and  were  on  the  programs  of  the  counties 
of  their  own  Normal  School  district.  How  much  their  appearance 
on  the  platform  of  the  institute  is  due  to  their  cx-officio  status  is 
merely  problematical.  It  is  rather  remarkable  that  the  men  and 
women  who  are  actually  in  the  field  are  very  rarely  called  on  for 
instructional  purposes  in  the  institutes.  Only  25  county  and  school 
superintendents  from  this  or  any  other  state,  were  engaged  for 
institute  work,  or  8%  of  the  total  number,  and  these  only  for  one 
or  two  addresses  in  the  week.  The  same  is  equally  true  of  rural  and 
elementary  teachers,  both  con.spicuous  for  their  absence  on  the  insti- 
tute programs. 

While  the  so-called  "professional"  lecturer  only  comprised  7% 
of  the  total  number  of  lecturers  in  the  53  counties  studied,  fifteen  of 


74  COUNTY  teachers'  institutes  in  PENNSYLVANIA 

these  men  filled  392  periods  of  time  in  1919,  or  32%  of  the  total 
institute  time.  This  is  only  counting  those  that  filled  a  whole  week's 
engagement,  or  an  average  of  8  to  10  addresses  a  week.  There  were 
numerous  others  of  these  lecturers  who  were  present  only  two  and 
three  days  in  a  county.  Hence,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  40%  of  the 
total  institute  time  in  53  counties  was  occupied  by  these  23  profes- 
sional lecturers.  That  this  situation  has  an  important  bearing  on  the 
instruction  of  the  Penna.  institutes  cannot  be  overlooked.  To 
carry  this  analysis  of  personnel  still  further,  there  were  12  lecturers 
on  the  institute  platform  in  Pennsylvania  who  lectured  for  an  entire 
week  in  five  or  more  counties  in  the  state  in  the  years  studied,  1919 
and  1920.  The  range  of  the  number  of  counties  is  as  follows  for  each 
of  these  12  lecturers,  all  but  three  being  of  the  so-called  "professional" 
type:— 5,  6,  12,  5,  10,  11,  9,  7,  6,  9,  6,  10.  All  but  tv/o  of  these  lec- 
turers were  from  without  the  state.  Only  two  or  three  of  these  12 
lecturers  ever  discussed  any  of  the  subjects  within  the  ten  topics 
already  mentioned  as  being  indicative  of  modern  tendencies,  or  move- 
ments that  real  live  teachers  should  know  something  about.  More 
remarkable,  however,  is  the  fact  that  these  12  lecturers  covered  a 
prodigious  amount  of  time.  There  were  in  the  two  years  mentioned 
in  these  53  counties  whose  programs  were  analyzed,  2746  periods  of 
lecture  work.  The  minimum  number  of  periods  covered  by  these 
12  lecturers,  in  addition  to  the  periods  occupied  in  sectional  or  de- 
partmental meetings,  was  768,  or  28%  of  the  total.  In  other  words,  12 
lecturers  gave  28%  of  the  instruction  in  two  years  in  Pennsylvania 
institutes,  some  of  whom  used  the  same  speeches  in  every  county,  and 
most  of  the  speeches  or  lectures  had  been  given  for  years  either  in 
Pennsylvania  or  other  states.  Furthermore,  there  were  ten  others 
who  occupied  in  28  counties  in  a  full  week's  engagements,  a  minimum 
total  of  224  periods.  Thus  it  is  very  evident  that  22  professional  and 
semi-professional  instructors  at  the  Pennsylvania  county  institutes 
contribute  36%  of  the  total  instruction,  in  the  years  1919  and  1920. 

The  situation  in  the  matter  of  musical  directors  at  our  county 
institutes  is  equally  as  striking.  Of  the  53  institutes  studied,  51 
had  regularly  employed  music  directors  whose  duty  it  is  to  mobilize 
and  direct  the  singing  forces,  and  to  give  instruction.  Five  men  in 
the  state  contribute  the  direction  of  the  music  in  25  institutes  as  fol- 
lows in  distribution  of  counties,  one  in  each  of:  9,  5,  4,  3,  and  4 
counties. 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  l.\  PENNSYLVANIA  75 

In  the  5.>  institutes  of  I'M'^  the  Department  of  Public  Instruction 
sent  to  the  institutes  a  total  of  24  representatives.  This  was  7%  of 
the  total  number  of  instructors.  In  1020  the  number  of  Department 
representatives  in  53  institutes  had  increased  from  24  to  61.  These 
61  representatives  occupied  118  periods  in  the  institutes  or  nearly 
8  per  cent  of  the  total  time.  Representatives  went  to  40  of  the  53 
counties  studied  in  1*>20,  while  in  1919  they  visited  20  counties  of  the 
53.  The  range  of  addresses  delivered  in  1920  was  from  1  to  9.  The 
numlier  of  rej^resenlatives  of  the  Department  of  rui)lic  Instruction 
in  the  institutes  of  1921  was  undoubtedly  larger  than  in  1920.  These 
data  are  not  at  present  availal)le  in  their  completed  form.  In  forty 
counties  studied  there  were  present  64  Department  representatives; 
in  5  of  these  counties  there  were  no  Department  representatives. 
The  number  of  representatives  from  the  State  Department  is  of  im- 
portance, not  only  to  the  shaping  of  an  institute  program,  but  is  of 
concern  to  the  finances.  No  doubt  thousands  of  dollars  are  thus 
saved  the  county  institutes,  which  in  turn  could  be  devoted  to  the 
securing  of  high  class  professional  talent. 

Personnel  Clioices  by  Teachers 
In  the  general  questionnaire  presented  to  teachers  was  a  cjuestion 
designed  to  throw  light  on  the  personnel  of  the  institute  instructors. 
Question  No.  7  read  as  follows: 

Check  in  blank  spaces  three  kinds  of  instructors  preferred,  using  numeral  1  fot 
first  choice,  2  for  second,  3  for  third : 

a.    Public  Men.  d.     Normal  school  teachers. 

b.     Practical  school  men.  e.     Professional  lecturers. 

c.     College  teachers.  f.     Successful  local  teachers. 

Forty-three  of  the  55  superintendents  who  answered  this  question 
are  much  in  favor  of  evening  sessions.  These  men  realize  the  real 
educational  value  of  the  evening  sessions  not  only  for  the  teacher, 
but  for  the  public  as  well.  The  most  common  of  these  reasons  are: 
The  opportunity  given  the  teachers  of  hearing  big  men  on  big  sub- 
jects; the  diversion  afforded  teachers;  social  contacts  and  recreations; 
opportunity  given  rural  teachers  to  hear  inspirational  addresses, 
artists  and  good  music;  the  opportunity  the  community  has  of 
hearing  discussions  which  stimulate  and  arouse  interest  in  public 
education.  One  superintendent  said  that  he  favored  the  evening 
session  in  order  to  keep  teachers  out  of  the  public  dance  halls,  not  a 
very  commendable  reason,  but  if  true,  evening  sessions  would  be 
really  worth-while. 


CHAPTER  IV 

The  Institute  Program 

One  of  the  most  important  phases  of  this  study  concerns  the  insti- 
tute program.  Does  the  institute  function  efl5ciently  thru  its  pro- 
gram? Does  the  program  fill  the  needs  and  requirements  of  present 
day  teachers?  Is  it  in  touch  with  the  times?  Are  teachers  being 
trained  or  improved  thru  it?  To  answer  these  natural  questions  the 
programs  of  the  institutes  of  the  state  have  been  critically  examined 
from  three  points  of  view:  (1)  the  personnel  of  the  instructors, 
(2)  the  materials  of  instruction  as  revealed  thru  the  titles  of  the 
lectures,  and  other  sources,  (3)  thru  the  assignment  of  materials  for 
specific  purposes. 

The  anal3^sis  of  the  personnel  of  the  institute  programs  is  not  so 
difficult  since  each  institute  program  usually  gives  a  brief  description 
of  the  instructors,  their  positions,  etc.  Since  the  instruction  given 
depends  to  a  large  extent  upon  the  type  of  instructor,  his  position,  his 
outlook  on  educational  conditions,  his  immediate  interests  in  the 
group  instructed,  his  intimacy  with  teacher  training  problems,  and 
many  other  factors,  the  personnel  of  the  instructors  in  the  institutes 
of  Pennsylvania  is  an  important  matter.  Accordingly,  the  instruc- 
tors of  the  institutes  have  been  distributed  among  nineteen  different 
classes  as  indicated  by  Table  No.  XV. 

The  analysis  of  the  contents  or  materials  of  the  programs  has  not 
been  a  simple  matter  since  it  was  not  possible  to  read  or  to  hear  many 
of  the  addresses  delivered.  On  the  other  hand,  it  should  be  within 
the  province  of  safe  diagnosis  in  the  majority  of  cases  where  to  place 
an  educational  address  as  prejudged  by  the  title  given  At  any  rate, 
it  is  just  as  safe  for  one  attempting  to  classify  the  addresses  as  it  is 
for  the  county  superintendent  to  select  them  from  a  list  given  by  the 
instructor  In  other  words,  the  officials  entrusted  with  the  making 
of  the  program  for  the  institute  must  labor  on  the  assumption  that 
the  titles  of  the  addresses  connotate  specific  educational  contents. 
Therefore,  it  is  felt  that  the  margin  of  error  is  comparatively  small. 
A  very  great  assistance  in  classifying  the  subject  matter  is  the 
acquaintance  of  the  writer  with  many  of  the  instructors  who  spoke 

76 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  77 

for  the  greater  part  of  a  week.  Willi  the  exception  of  a  larj^e  grouj) 
of  Normal  School  teachers,  there  were  in  all  on  the  programs  exam- 
ined forty  instructors  who  were  "five  clay"  men.  The  writer  has  at 
one  time  or  another  heard  38  of  these  men,  in  many  cases  has  heard 
the  same  addresses  delivered  at  the  institutes  covered  by  the  pro- 
grams studied.  The  programs  studied  represent  53  institutes  held  in 
the  fall  of  1919  and  1920.  Of  these  the  writer  visited  personally  15 
and  has  heard  at  various  times  at  least  one-third  of  the  men  repre- 
sented on  these  programs. 

The  distribution  or  analysis  of  the  contents  of  the  addresses  is 
according  to  the  scheme  as  given  in  the  table  below  (Table  XXII).  It 
will  be  noticed  that  the  significant  part  of  this  particular  study  centers 
around  those  phases  of  modern  educational  movements  with  which  it 
would  be  easily  possible  to  identify  any  address.  Reference  is  had 
particularly  to  these  topics: — The  curriculum,  supervised  study,  the 
project  method  of  teaching,  supervision  of  instruction,  measurements, 
silent  reading,  vocational  guidance  or  education,  nature  study,  citi- 
zenship, and  community  organization.  The  margin  of  error  in  plac- 
ing a  subject  of  an  educational  address  into  any  of  these  ten  modern 
educational  categories  is  comparatively  small.  The  other  three 
groups  into  which  50  per  cent  of  all  the  addresses  are  placed — 
methods,  inspirational  materials,  and  professional — could  hardly  be 
mistaken  with  the  ten  mentioned.  No  one  would  place  such  titles 
as  "The  Man  in  the  Moon,"  "The  Baby  and  the  Bath  Water,"  "My 
Bag  for  Black  Walnuts"  and  others  equally  as  enigmatical  into  any 
category  which  would  indicate  that  the  subjects  might  refer  to  one 
of  the  ten  modern  subjects  mentioned.  Then,  again,  scores  of  ad- 
dresses were  marked  merely  "addresses."  These  were  placed  after 
carefully  considering  the  instructor  and  other  named  subjects  that 
he  had  used.  Usually,  most  of  these  subjects  can  be  safely  classified 
under  the  so-called  "inspirational"  type.  Not  much  damage  would 
be  done  to  the  classification  if  they  were  placed  under  either  of  the 
other  two,  methods  or  professional.  By  no  stretch  of  the  imagina- 
tion could  such  subjects  be  placed  under  any  of  the  ten  mentioned 
as  being  distinctly  of  modern  tendency. 

On  the  other  hand  there  can  be  no  error  in  placing  subjects  like 
the  following:  "The  Socialized  Recitation,"  "Legal  and  Professional 
Obligations  of  the  Teacher,"  "Agricultural  Projects  for  Pennsylvania 
High  Schools,"  "Sociology  as  Related  to  Rural  Life,"  "Civics  in  Rural 
Schools."    It  is  much  more  difficult,  however,  to  place  "The  Door's 


78 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 


Worn  Sill,"  "I  Hate  to  Go  Above  You"  or  ''She  Hath  Done  What  She 
Couldn't."  In  the  53  programs  analyzed  for  1919,  there  were  26 
unnamed  addresses  found  in  11  different  counties;  in  the  1920  pro- 
grams analyzed,  there  were  81  unnamed  addresses  found  in  30  coun- 
ties, tho  there  was  one  county  where  75%  of  the  addresses  had  no 
title, — a  very  unsatisfactory  outlook  for  a  group  of  teachers  com- 
pelled to  attend  an  institute,  but  not  even  knowing  what  to  expect. 
In  all,  4%  of  the  2736  addresses  examined  in  106  programs  in  two 
years,  were  without  titles,  or  any  indication  as  to  the  possible  discus- 
sion. Many  of  the  addresses  in  the  sectional  meetings  were  without 
titles — an  indication  of  a  lack  of  aim  and  plan  in  the  sections.  A 
few  examples  of  poor  and  vague  subjects  are:^ 

"Oil  for  Creaking  Joints." 

"A  Big  School  Problem." 

"Odds  and  Ends." 

"World  Building." 

"The  New  W'onian." 

"The  Framework  Beneath  the  Frescoeing." 

"Killing  Two  Birds  with  One  Stone." 

"The  Man  in  the  Moon." 

"The  Ten  Virgins." 

"Quo  Vadis." 

"The  Third  Battle  of  the  Marne." 

Table  XVI — Personnel  Choices  by  Teachers 


(2694 
First 
Choice 

Teachers) 
Second 
Choice 

Third 
Choice 

Weighted- 
Points 

Per 
Cent. 

Public  Men 

341 
1576 
251 
116 
281 
129 

416 
468 
525 
479 
352 
241 

389 
281 
345 
369 
422 
490 

2244 
5945 
2148 
1675 
1969 
1359 

14  6 

Practical  School  Men 

College  Teachers 

38.7 
14  1 

Normal  School  Teachers. .  . 

Professional  Lecturers 

Successful  Local  Teachers. . 

10.8 

12.8 

8.9 

2694 

2481 

2296 

15340 

100. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  Normal  School  teachers  are  ranked  second 
by  County  Superintendents  and  only  fifth  by  the  teachers.  This 
group  occupies  only  15  per  cent  of  the  instructional  staffs  of  the 


'  Selected  from  1919  and  1920  County  Institute  Programs. 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  79 

institutes  studied.  One-half  of  the  sixteen  per  cent  are  Normal 
School  principals.  It  is  ciuite  evident  that  in  1919  Normal  School 
teachers  occupied  only  7  per  cent  of  the  instructional  stalT.  The 
per  cent  would,  undoubtedly,  be  larger  in  1921,  due  to  the  rightful 
function  that  the  institute  and  Normal  Schools  are  beginning  to  hold 
towards  each  other.  There  is  no  reason  why  a  higher  degree  of  co- 
operation should  not  be  shown  towards  these  two  agencies  in  their 
own  territory.  This  lack  of  co-operation,  however,  seems  to  be  more 
than  peculiar  to  Pennsylvania  alone.  Lommen^  in  discussing  the 
instructional  staff  of  teachers  institutes  says  that,  "Just  one-half  of 
the  states  make  no  efTort  to  co-ordinate  the  interests  of  the  teachers 
in  the  field  with  those  of  the  nearest  institution  engaged  in  the  special 
task  of  creating  teaching  ability.  Plerein  lies  a  serious  defect. 
No  agency  in  the  state  should  be  so  sensitive  to  the  immediate 
needs  of  teachers  in  the  service  as  should  be  the  State  Normal 
Schools."  It  is  diflicult,  and,  of  course,  immaterial,  to  say  whether 
the  Normal  School  or  the  County  Superintendent  is  to  blame  for  this 
condition.  The  fact  is  that  the  Normal  Schools,  as  Bloomsburg  has 
already  done,  should  be  the  means  of  furnishing  much  real  instruc- 
tional service  to  the  institutes  of  its  contingent  territory.  Their 
buildings,  their  teachers,  their  organizations  should  be  put  at  the 
disposal  of  County  Institutes  wherever  accessibility  permits. 

Sixty-five  County  Superintendents  also  expressed  their  preference 
for  the  personnel  of  institute  instructors  by  ranking  them  as  follows: 


Professional  Lecturers. . 
Normal  School  Teachers . 

College  Teachers 

Practical  School  Men .  .  . 
Public  Men 


Weighted- 

Per 

Points 

Cent. 

161 

31.2 

120 

2.?.  2 

112 

21.8 

81 

15.5 

42 

8.1 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  ranking  or  choices  of  institute  instruc- 
tors by  2500  teachers  does  not  agree  with  that  of  the  County  Superin- 
tendents who  place  "Professional"  lecturers  first,  whereas  teachers 
place  them  fourth.  Teachers  place  "practical"  school  men  first, 
while  County  Superintendents  place  them  fourth.  Teachers  place 
public  men  and  college  teachers  a  close  second,  whereas  County 
Superintendents  place  the  college  teachers  third,  and  public  men  last. 

'  Lommen,  C,  "'journal  of  Rural  Education,"  Oct.  1921.    Op.  Cit.  p.  63. 


80 


COUNTY  TEACHERS    INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 


This  comparison  of  personnel  choices  agrees  pretty  closely  with  the 
actual  distribution  of  the  personnel  in  the  programs  studied  where 
it  has  been  shown  that  32  per  cent  of  the  institute  time  was  filled 
by  "professional"  lecturers,  who  in  turn  were  assigned  a  ranking  of 
31.2  per  cent  by  County  Superintendents  themselves — who,  of 
course,  also  made  out  the  programs.  The  table  below  illustrates 
the  distributions  of  institute  instructors  on  the  programs  according 
to  the  County  Superintendents'  ranking  of  choices  and  the  actual 
distribution  on  programs,  together  with  teachers'  preferences: 

Table  XVII — Comparative  Table  Preferences  and  Actual  Distribution 


Type 

Pref.  by 
Co.  Supt. 

Per  Ct.  Actual 
Distribution 

Pref.  by 
Teachers 

Professional 

31.2 
23.2 
21.8 
8.1 
15.5 

7.* 
16.4 
22.5 

2.4 
11.7 

7. 
33. 

12  8 

Normal  School  Teachers 

10  8 

College  Teachers 

14  1 

Public  Men 

14  6 

Practical  School  Men 

38  7 

Dept.  Public  Inst 

All  Others 

*Occupied  32%  of  institute  time. 

It  is  seen  that  there  is  a  striking  correlation  between  county 
superintendents'  preferences  of  the  type  of  instructors  and  the  actual 
personnel  as  found  in  the  programs  when  we  translate  the  percentages 
of  frequency  of  the  five  groups  of  instructors  into  the  actual  time 
occupied  on  the  programs.  There  is  no  correlation,  whatever, 
between  teachers'  preferences  as  to  personnel  of  instructors,  county 
superintendents,  and  the  actual  programs.  This,  of  course,  imme- 
diately raises  the  question  whether  or  not  teachers  should  have  a 
share  in  the  making  up  of  the  programs.  It  has  been  shown  in  the 
chapter  on  "Organizations"  that  teachers  have  little,  if  any,  partici- 
pation in  program  making. 

Frequency  and  Number  of  Instructors 
The  number  of  instructors  varies  from  two  in  Cameron  County 
to  16  in  Chester  County.    The  frequencies  are  as  follows: 

Table  XVIII — Frequency  of  Instructors — 1919 
Instructors 2     3    4      5      6    7     8    9     10     11     12     13     14     15     16 

No.  of  Counties 127     14     10    565       1       1      0      0      0      0       1 


COUNTY  TEACHERS    INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 


81 


It  will  be  seen  that  36  of  the  53  institutes  have  from  4  to  7  instructors 
including  the  musical  director  and  the  health  representative  who 
usually  gave  but  one  address.  The  median  number  of  instructors 
is  5.3  per  institute,  including,  of  course,  the  musical  director  who, 
with  the  exception  of  one  or  two  addresses  before  one  or  two  sections, 
does  no  teaching  in  most  of  the  counties. 

Very  few  of  the  programs  analyzed  showed  any  evidence  or  plan  of 
continuity.  Occasionally  some  speaker  would  develop  during  the 
entire  week  one  central  theme.  In  a  few  instances  some  instructor 
gave  two  or  three  addresses  bearing  on  one  subject,  but  in  no  case 
did  any  5  day  instructor  develop  one  line  of  thought.  In  fact,  in  the 
large  majority  of  programs  the  addresses  were  isolated  and  more  or 
less  disconnected.  Whether  or  not  any  continuity  were  possible  or 
even  desirable  may  be  determined  from  the  frequency  of  the  number 
of  lectures  delivered  and  from  the  number  of  days  that  the  instruc- 
tors were  engaged. 

Table  XIX — Frequency  of  Number  of  Lectures — 191^ 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

Number 

83 
8 

20 
4 

24 
7 

9 

3 

13 
6.2 

11 
6.2 

13 

8.7 

41 
30.1 

21 

18 

3 
3 

2 
2 

2 

Per  Cent 

2 

Of  the  1046  periods  studied  and  placed  it  is  evident  that  593  or  56.7 
per  cent  were  distributed  among  instructors  who  gave  8  or  more 
addresses;  750  or  71  per  cent  among  those  who  gave  6  or  more  ad- 
dresses. 

In  connection  with  the  matter  of  continuity  of  program  the  fre- 
quency of  the  number  of  days  on  which  instructors  appeared  on  the 
program  is  equally  as  significant. 

Table  XX— Frequency  of  Days— 1919 

Davs 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

Number  lecturers 

34 

22 

16 

4 

76 

Of  the  132  instructors  who  could  be  classified  as  being  on  the 
program  one  or  more  days — musical  directors  and  those  who  were 


82 


COUNTY  TEACHERS    INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 


present  only  half  a  day  being  excluded — 76  or  57.6  per  cent  were 
employed  for  5  days  or  the  entire  week.  This  would  indicate  that 
continuity  of  program  is  possible  if  properly  planned. 

An  important  bearing  on  the  continuity  of  program  is  the  number 
of  lecture  periods  provided  for  the  institutes  studied.  The  number 
of  lecture  periods  varies  from  14  in  one  county  to  67  in  1919,  and 
from  16  in  the  lowest  county  to  92  in  1920.  The  median  number  of 
lecture  periods  in  1919  was  24,  in  1920  it  was  26.  The  average 
number  in  1919  was  26,  in  1920,  29.    The  table  of  frequency  follows. 

Table  XXI — Frequency  Number  of  Lecture  Periods — 50  Counties 


Periods 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

1919 

1 

2 

1 
1 

2 
0 

3 
3 

3 
2 

1 
7 

3 
1 

3 

1920 

5 

Periods 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

32 

1919 

1920 

5 
3 

2 

1 

4 
3 

4 
2 

1 
0 

4 
3 

1 

3 

1 

5 

1 

2 

1 
1 

Periods 

33 

34 

35 

36 

37 

38 

39 

40 

43 

45 

55 

67 

75 

02 

1919 

0 
1 

1 
2 

2 
0 

0 
0 

1 
1 

0 

1 

1 

1 
2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1920 

1 

Effect  of  Sections  on  Type  of  Program 

It  is  rather  difficult  to  determine  what  the  effect  of  the  sectional 
institute  properly  organized  might  have  on  the  institute  program. 
It  is  logical  to  believe  that  the  mere  division  of  an  institute  into 
sections  will  necessitate  instructional  materials  adapted  to  the 
needs  of  those  constituting  a  particular  group.  This  theory  does  not 
always  work  judging  from  an  analysis  of  49  programs.  (Complete 
programs  were  lacking  in  4  counties.  As  has  been  stated,  a  large 
majority  of  the  addresses  without  titles  are  found  in  the  sectional 
programs.  Many  of  these  sections  are  merely  scheduled  as  "con- 
ferences" or  "questions"  without  any  assigned  theme.  In  many 
cases  there  is  not  even  an  assigned  chairman  or  a  definite  division  of 
time.    (See  chapter  on  "Organization  of  Institute.") 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  83 

In  191*>  the  Department  strongly  urged  in  a  "Bulletin  on  Insti- 
tutes" that  sectional  institutes  be  organized  wherever  possible.  As 
a  result  in  1920,  29  of  the  53  county  institutes  studied  were  sectional 
and  24  general.  To  note  the  efTect  of  such  divisions  on  the  program 
it  is  interesting  to  note  that  in  1919  only  20  programs  had  any 
provision,  whatever,  for  a  discussion  of  topics  related  to  rural  schools. 
This  number  increased  in  1920  to  .^^.  Of  the  general  program  insti- 
tutes, 15  out  of  24  did  not  even  touch  the  rural  school  problem, 
while  only  5  out  of  29  of  the  sectional  program  institute  failed  to 
stress  this  problem.  The  same  is  undoubtedly  true  of  other  phases. 
The  one  great  handicap  noticed  thus  far  in  organizing  the  program 
of  the  sectional  institutes  seems  to  be  the  small  amount  of  time 
allocated  to  the  sections  proper.  In  many  cases,  the  sections  are 
provided  for  Tuesday,  Wednesday,  and  Thursday,  only,  because 
of  the  convening  of  the  institutes  Monday  afternoon  and  the  ad- 
journment Friday  noon.  The  time  assigned  is  generally  from  11  to 
12  o'clock,  and  in  some  cases  from  10  to  12.  This  would  indicate  that 
at  present  the  form  of  the  sectional  institute,  and  not  the  spirit  is 
being  followed. 

A  nalysis  of  Subject  Matter 

Forty-nine  available  programs  for  1919  were  analyzed  in  detail. 
The  same  number  of  programs  for  1920  were  analyzed  primarily  to 
determine  to  what  e.xtent  there  had  been  an  increase  in  the  instruc- 
tional materials  in  fields  which  may  be  characterized  as  modern, 
such  as  the  junior  high  school,  the  use  of  intelligence  and  achieve- 
ment tests,  supervised  study  in  various  subjects,  the  project  method 
of  teaching,  and  others  ecjually  as  prominent  before  the  schools. 

On  account  of  the  introduction  in  many  institutes  of  the  sectional 
meetings,  the  programs  have  increased  in  size  and  scope.  This 
may  be  seen  from  the  increase  in  the  number  of  instructional  periods 
from  1217  in  1919  to  1529  in  1920.  In  the  following  table  is  given  the 
distribution  of  content  matter  according  to  the  scheme  already 
mentioned. 

This  analysis  has  excluded  all  the  time  assigned  to  music  during 
the  day  sessions.  Music  instruction  in  some  institutes  covers  as 
much  as  one-fourth  of  the  institute's  time;  neither  does  the  analysis 
cover  the  evening  programs  which  arc  at  least  75  per  cent  enter- 
tainment. 


84 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 


Table   XXII — Distribution    of    Subject   Matter — 1919 — County    Institutes 

(1217  Periods) 


No.  Periods 

Per  Cent  of  Total 

220 

18.2 

320 

26.4 

101 

8.3 

52 

4.3 

43 

3.5 

73 

6.0 

38 

3.1 

31 

2.5 

37 

3.0 

27 

2.2 

8 

0.6 

3 

0.2 

18 

1.5 

3 

0.2 

17 

1.5 

18 

1.5 

17 

1.5 

38 

3,0 

13 

1.0 

11 

0.9 

37 

3.0 

13 

1.0 

15 

1.2 

25 

2.0 

25 

2.0 

5 

0.4 

Methods  of  Instruction 

Inspiration 

Professional 

Psychology 

Curriculum 

Health 

Information 

Entertainment 

War  or  Aftermath 

Supervised  Study 

Project  Method  (Two  Counties) , 

Supervision  of  Instruction 

Measurements 

Silent  Reading 

Vocational  Education 

Organization 

Discipline 

Rural  Education 

Red  Cross 

Thrift 

Citizenship 

Demonstration , 

Nature  Study 

Miscellaneous 

Community 

Moral  Education 


An  effort  has  been  made  in  this  analysis  to  separate  as  much  as 
possible  all  provisions  in  the  institute  programs  made  for  the  follow- 
ing movements:  supervised  study,  project  method  of  teaching, 
supervision  of  instruction,  measurements,  silent  reading,  vocational 
education,  rural  education,  citizenship,  community,  junior  high 
school.  This  exclusive  classification  serves  the  double  purpose  of 
avoiding  error  of  classification  and  of  revealing  whether  or  not  any 
stress  has  been  placed  on  admittedly  important  modern  school 
movements.  To  these  ten  phases  the  fifty-three  institute  programs 
analyzed  gave  14.2  per  cent  of  their  program  space.  In  all  these 
programs  no  mention  seems  to  be  made  of  the  junior  high  school, 
nothing  about  the  project  method,  while  the  problem  of  Americani- 
zation goes  by  default  entirely.    One  would  expect  that  one  year  after 


COUNTY  TEACHERS    INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 


85 


the  World  War  (1919)  problems  of  an  educational  character  arising 
out  of  the  War  would  find  a  place  on  the  institute  program.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  the  War  or  its  aftermath  cocupied  three  (3)  per  cent 
of  the  day  programs.  The  rural  school  problem  about  which  county 
superintendents  are  always  dispairing  of  solving  and  which  one 
would  think  would  he  the  paramount  concern  of  our  county  chiefs, 
does  not  even  lind  a  place  on  33  of  the  53  programs  e.xamined. 
This  problem  consumed  but  three  (3)  per  cent  of  the  program  space. 
Health  came  in  for  stress  in  nearly  every  one  of  the  counties  because 
the  Department  of  Health  made  an  effort  to  present  the  health  prob- 
lem to  the  teachers.  The  lecture,  "The  Teacher  as  a  Life  Saver" 
was  given  in  most  of  the  counties  of  the  state  by  a  representative  of  the 
Department  of  Health. 

An  analysis  of  53  county  programs  for  1920  has  been  made  with 
the  view  of  determining  to  what  extent  the  institutes  last  year 
stressed  the  more  recent  phases  of  educational  movements  such  as 
those  indicated.    The  following  table  gives  this  analysis. 

Table  XXIII — Distribution  of  Subject  Matter  Covering  Certain  Movements 

1920  (1529  periods) 


No.  Periods 


Per  Cent  of  Total 


1919 

1920 

1919 

1920 

Junior  High  School 

0 

8 
21 

0 
.^7 
38 

0 
24 
17 

0 

^ 

21 
41 
11 
68 
71 
12 
56 
14 
0 

0  0 
.6 
1.7 
0. 

.V 

.^. 

0. 

2. 

15 

0 

.2 

Project  Method 

Measurements  (Inc.  Sil.  Rdg.) 

13 
2.6 

Socialized  Recitation 

.7 

Citizenship 

Rural  Educition 

4  4 
4  6 

Americanization 

.8 

Red  Cross— Thrift 

3.7 

Vocational  Kducation 

9 

Supervision  of  Instruction 

0. 

Total 

145 

287 

11. 

18. 

It  will  be  seen  that  there  has  been  an  appreciable  increase  from 
11  per  cent  to  IS  per  cent  of  the  total  number  of  periods  allotted 
to  these  more  recent  movements.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  people 
and  teachers  are  thinking  more  about  rural  education  and  citizenship 
since  the  activity  of  the  Department  of  Public  Instruction  in  stressing 


86 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 


these  two  thru  the  Bureau  of  Rural  Schools  and  thru  the  newly 
organized  curriculum  in  the  social  studies. 

It  is  evident  from  the  analysis  already  made  that  the  county 
institute  program  in  1919  did  not  function  with  the  modern  demands 
and  tendencies.  It  is  very  clear  that  the  institute  does  not  effectively 
stress  the  needs  of  the  rural  schools,  nor  does  it  offer  teachers  the 
opportunity  to  be  expected  of  making  them  familiar  with  worth 
while  modern  movements.  A  further  analysis  from  different  points 
of  view  reveals  similar  shortcomings  in  these  programs.  The  third 
analysis  classifies  all  instruction  into  general  and  specific,  two  terms 
of  which  there  can  be  little  dispute  as  to  their  meaning.  All  lectures 
that  touched  upon  general  educational  problems  without  reference 
to  any  particular  application,  have  been  classified  under  General  In- 
struction; all  those  which  appeared  to  have,  or  suggested  even 
remotely,  any  specific  application  were  placed  under  Specific  Instruc- 
tion. In  addition,  whatever  instructional  materials  as  announced 
by  the  49  programs  and  analyzed,  could  be  assigned  to  the  grades, 
the  high  school,  or  rural  schools,  were  so  placed.  All  materials  that 
seemed  to  concern  teachers  without  experience,  or  designed  primarily 
for  such,  were  likewise  classified.  In  all  1209  lecture  subjects  were  an- 
alyzed in  this  way.    The  following  table  shows  the  results: 

Table  XXIV — Distribution  of  Subject  jMatter — 49   Counties 

(1919) 

No.  Periods  PerCt.  of  Total 


General  Instruction 

Specific  Instruction 

Assigned  to  grades , 

Assigned  to  high  schools 

Assigned  to  rural  schools 

Pertaining  to  beginning  teacher . 


666 

57 

523 

43 

194 

16 

61 

5 

38 

3 

2 

0 

Twenty-five  counties,  or  50  per  cent  of  the  counties  studied,  had 
less  than  10  periods  of  specific  instruction;  two  counties  had  only  2; 
one  had  3;  four  had  4  each;  four  had  5  each,  while  six  had  6  each. 
There  were  14  counties  in  all  that  offered  more  specific  instruction 
then  general  instruction.  Two  counties,  Chester  and  Montgomery, 
perhaps  the  most  highly  sectionalized  institutes  in  the  state,  each 
had  a  predominatingly  large  percentage  of  specific  instruction. 
Chester  county  offered  47  periods  of  specific  instruction,  against 
14  periods  of  general,  with  a  few  periods  not  assigned  because  of 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  87 

uncertainty.     Montgomery  offered  37  periods  of  specific  instruction 
against  10  of  general  instruction. 

It  is  very  evident  that  according  to  this  classification  and  analysis, 
the  county  institutes  in  Pennsylvania  in  1919  olTcrcd  very  little 
that  could  be  appropriated  either  by  the  grade  or  high  school  teacher. 
The  ordinary  program  is  lamentably  deficient  in  instruction  for 
high  school  teachers — a  very  plausible  explanation  for  the  universal 
apathy  of  high  school  teachers  towards  the  institute.  It  has  already 
been  pointed  out  that  the  rural  schools,  which  should  be  especially 
well  taken  care  of  in  the  county  institute  programs,  receive  less  than 
five  per  cent  of  the  institute  program  space.  Beginners  have  received 
nothing  specific,  while  principals  and  other  administrative  officers 
are  as  scantily  treated  as  beginners,  even  tho  few  counties  do  carry 
on  their  programs  "conferences  for  principals"  and  "meetings  of 
inexperienced  teachers."  This  situation  is  the  more  intensified  when 
we  note  thai  in  eight  out  of  the  forty-nine  counties  not  a  single 
period  could  be  specifically  assigned  to  the  elementary  grades; 
while  in  28  of  the  forty-nine  counties  not  a  single  subject  suggested 
application  to  the  rural  school  problem,  either  generally  or  specifically. 
Undoubtedly,  it  is  ture  that  a  good  deal  of  the  instruction  offered  at 
the  institutes  can  be  appropriated  by  all  groups  of  teachers.  The 
material  classified  as  "inspirational"  is  of  this  type.  Does  this 
type  of  material,  however,  offer  the  type  of  instruction  that  will  im- 
prove teachers  in  service? 


CHAPTER  V 

The  County  Institute  as  an  Agency  in  the  Improvement  of 
Teachers  in  Service 

As  already  intimated,  the  county  institute  to  justify  itself  should 
be  an  agency  to  improve  teachers  in  service  at  the  present  time. 
We  have  already  seen  in  Chapter  I,  "Historical  Origins,"  that  the 
original  function  of  the  institute  was  at  least,  two  fold-propaganda 
for  better  school  sentiment,  and  teacher  preparation.  The  two 
purposes  were  knit  together  thru  the  developing  leadership  of  the 
County  Superintendent.  This  purpose  is  well  seen  even  to-day  as  is 
evidenced  in  a  paper  on  "Some  Values  of  County  Institutes"^  by 
Thomas  A.  Bock,  then  county  superintendent  of  Chester.  In  this 
paper  read  before  the  County  Superintendents'  section  of  the  Penn- 
sylvania State  Educational  Association,  Harrisburg,  1920,  Supt. 
Bock  said: 

And  one  element  whereby  the  county  superintendent  exercises  his  leadership  is  the 
county  institute;  moreover  a  verj-  significant  factor  in  the  maintenance  of  his  count}' 
educational  leadership  lies  in  his  conduct  and  development  of  his  county  institute. 

This  ideal  of  the  superintendent's  leadership  is  the  logical  outcome 
of  the  evolution  of  our  system  of  school  administration  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, whereby  the  county  superintendent  occupies  a  pivotal  admin- 
istrative position.  The  necessity,  however,  for  keeping  up  this 
leadership  should  not  be  any  considerable  motive  or  only  reason  for 
continuing  any  institution,  if  this  institution  has  performed  its 
function  in  the  natural  course  of  our  educational  evolution.  Hence, 
the  need  to  evaluate  carefully  any  thesis  that  the  county  institute  is 
still  an  agency  that  improves  teachers  in  service.  That  this  is  a  func- 
tion claimed  for  the  county  institute  can  be  readily  seen  by  quoting 
briefly  from  some  Institute  Manuals  and  recent  authorities: 

The  main  purpose  of  aJl  institute  work  is  to  develop  teaching  and  training 
power.' 

»  Paper  read  before  County  Superintendents  Dept.  P.S.E.A.,  1920— Bock,  T.  A., 
Co.  Supt.  of  Chester. 

^  Kentucky  Manual  on  Institutes,  1910. 

88 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  89 

"The  primar>'  purpose  of  a  teachers*  institute  is  to  secure  better  teaching."' 
"Stated  in  one  phrase,  the  function  of  the  institute  is  to  increase  immediately 

and  directly  the  efficiency  of  our  schools.     Both  the  teachers  anil  the  public  have  a 

right  to  e-xpect  discoverable  results.     And  this  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  it  may  be 

admitted  that  many  results  are  not  directly  measurable."* 

"The  true  test  of  the  value  of  the  institute  is  whether  the  teachers  teach  differently 

by  the  help  received."' 

County  Superintendent  Milnor  of  Lycoming  County,  Pennsyl- 
vania claims  as  the  first  valuable  service  of  the  Institute  the  follow- 
ing: 

It  furnishes  professional  instructions  for  teachers  and  inspiration  for  their  work, 
by  contact  with  trained  instructors  and  personal  association  with  each  other.  This 
leads  to  (a)  self-improvement,  professional  reading  and  study;  (b)  school  improvement 
in  methods,  management  and  discipline;  and  (c)  closer  co-operation  among  patrons, 
teachers  and  directors.' 

No  less  an  authority  on  public  education  than  Dr.  Snedden  says  that, 
The  institutes  are  for  the  after-training  of  teachers.' 

The  chapters  on  "Historical  Origins"  and  "The  Aims  of  Institutes" 
would  also  indicate  that  one  of  the  functions  of  the  institutes  has 
been  and  is  the  improvement  of  teachers  in  service. 

Dr.  Ruediger,  however,  while  agreeing  that  teachers'  institutes 
in  the  past  were  agencies  for  improving  teachers,  takes  issue  in  the 
whole  movement  for  the  improvement  of  teachers  in  service  by 
drawing  a  distinction  among  the  "training  of  teachers,"  "the  trial 
period  of  teaching,"  and  the  "professional  life  of  a  full-fledged 
teacher.""  Ruediger  would  limit  the  "after-training"  of  teachers 
to  the  "trial  group,"  tho  not  denying  that  "the  obligation  of  pro- 
fessional growth  is  one  of  the  basic  obligations  of  the  teacher's  life." 
Ruediger  in  no  uncertain  language  condemns  the  practice  of  insisting 
upon  the  after-professional-training  of  teachers  who  have  reached 
their  "professional  majority." 

To  put  it  in  still  plainer  English,  my  main  point  is  that  there  should  be  a  time 
when  a  teacher  reaches  his  professional  majority,  after  which  his  professional  growth 

*  lUinois  Commission,  1908-10. 

♦  Betts,  "The  County  Institute,"  Schoolmen's  Week,  1919,  p.  208-11. 
»Betts,  op.  cit.,  p.  211. 

•  Milnor,  G.  B.  Schoolmen's  Week  Proceedings,  1919,  p.  226. 
'  From  answer  to  inr|uir>-  of  Mar.  1,  1922.  (q.  v.  appendix.) 
'  Bulletin  No.  3,  1922,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  op.  cit. 


90  COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 

should  be  motivated  by  his  own  professional  needs  and  he  should  no  longer  be  pestered 
by  time-consuming  and  distasteful  general  requirements.' 

For  the  teacher  who  is  teaching  in  the  "trial  period,"  Ruediger 
would  prescribe  summer  session  work  or  extension  courses  until  she 
attains  to  the  "professional  majority"  group.  Ruediger,  therefore, 
does  not  advocate  the  institute  as  an  agency  for  training  teachers  in 
service,  for  he  thinks  that  the  annual  county  institute  contributes 
"very  little"^"  to  the  professional  training  of  teachers.  In  spite  of 
this  authority's  dissension  from  the  claimed  aim  of  the  institute  that 
it  serves  as  a  means  to  train  teachers  in  service,  we  can  consider 
the  claim  with  the  view  of  determining  the  soundness  of  the  proposi- 
tion. 

This  study  cannot  discuss  even  in  a  general  way  teacher  training 
agencies  or  facilities  in  Pennsylvania  To  advance  the  proposition, 
however,  that  institutes  should  be  a  means  for  the  after-training  or 
improvement  of  teachers  in  service,  it  can  be  assumed  that  there  are 
many  agencies  to  improve  teachers  in  service,  but  only  a  few  to  train 
them  for  service.  We  are  limited  in  Pennsylvania  to  our  thirteen 
State  Normal  Schools  and  to  our  colleges  thru  their  departments  of 
training  teachers  for  service.  To  these  we  should  add  the  Summer 
Schools,  tho  these  usually  take  the  teachers  already  in  service. 
The  agencies  for  training  teachers  in  service  are  numerous,  but  among 
the  most  effective  are  supervision,  inspection,  and  standardization; 
attendance  at  summer  schools;  correspondence  courses  with  state 
and  private  institutions;  extension  courses;  college  courses  in  resi- 
dence during  school  year;  visitation  days;  demonstration  classes 
either  in  the  local  system  or  in  other  schools;  attendance  at  state 
conventions,  the  sabbatical  year,  etc.;  and  thru  local  and  county 
institutes."'  ^^  Undoubtedly  other  means  for  improving  teachers  in 
service  can  be  named.  The  number  of  agencies  is,  indeed,  preten- 
tious. It  is  safe  to  say  that  if  all  these  agencies  existed  in  1857, 
county  institutes  would  never  have  originated  and  continued  as  they 
have.    This  fact  must  be  borne  in  mind. 

Neither  can  it  be  denied  that  there  is  need  for  training  teachers 
in  service.     The  thousands  of  teachers  v/ho  attend  summer  sessions 

•Ruediger,  "Schoolmen's  Week  Proceedings,"  1917,  p.  64,  and  School  and 
Society— Jan.  27,  1918. 

"  From  answer  to  inquirj-^  of  March  1,  1922. 

1*  Updegraff,  H.,  Training  Teachers  in  Service,  N.  E.  A.  Proceedings,  1911. 

*-  Ruediger,  Improvement  Teachers  in  Sersace,  Bulletin  U.  S.  Bureau,  No.  3,  1911. 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLN'ANIA  91 

and  who  take  extension  and  resilient  courses  during  the  school  year 
are  an  evidence  of  this  fact,  not  to  mention  the  lack  of  a  sulTicient 
number  of  adequately  trained  teachers,  and  the  large  number  of 
young  and  inexperienced  teachers.    Besides, 

there  is  still  another  phase  of  the  situation  which  makes  it  necessary  to  provide  training 
for  teachers  during  their  period  of  sers-ice.  The  science  and  art  of  teaching  are  growing 
by  leaps  and  bounds.  Social  conditions  which  the  teacher  must  meet  arc  also  in 
constant  change.  If  a  teacher,  Rip  \'an  Winkle  like,  goes  to  sleep  with  the  preparation 
that  even  tiie  best  training  course  can  give  lo-day,  to-morrow  he  will  be  out  of  date.'* 

A  further  justification  for  the  training  of  teachers  in  service  may  be 
seen  from  the  fact  that: 

The  principles  and  practices,  theory  and  the  art  of  education,  are  constantly 
undergoing,  in  common  with  the  other  phases  of  civilization,  modification  and  develop- 
ment. Likewise,  the  field  of  knowledge  in  which  instruction  is  given  and  the  habits 
which  education  seeks  to  form,  are  always  changing.'* 

With  all  these  agencies  at  hand,  the  relative  value  of  the  institute 
can  be  questioned,  and  seriously  so,  at  present.  No  matter  how 
well  this  institution  might  have  done  its  work  25  years  ago,  that  in 
itself  cannot  justify  it.  The  institute  must  stand  on  its  merit  as  an 
agency  to  improve  teachers  in  service  as  compared  with  the  others 
mentioned.  We  are  attempting  to  study  the  institute  according  to 
efficiency  principles.  The  institute  is  an  enterprise;  it  costs  money; 
it  does  or  does  not  turn  out  a  product.  Does  the  product,  or  the 
result  cost  too  much?  Can  the  same  result  be  secured  for  less  ex- 
pense? Is  the  aim  of  the  present  institute  sufficient  to  meet  a  situa- 
tion or  need  for  the  improvement  of  teachers?  Is  the  personnel  of  the 
institute  an  efficient  one?  Is  its  organization  satisfactory  to  carry 
out  its  aims?  Most  of  these  questions  have  already  been  answered 
in  the  chapters  on  "Finance,"  "Organization,"  and  "Programs." 
It  remains,  however,  to  discuss  specifically  the  institute  as  a  teacher 
training  device  in  the  light  of  our  present  needs. 

The  training  of  teachers  in  1857  when  institutes  had  their  legal 
origin  was  a  comparatively  simple  matter.  The  institute  then,  thru 
its  program  and  organi;cation,  performed  a  distinct  service  not  only 
in  giving  teachers  some  training  in  subject  matter  and  professional 
outlook,  but  assisted  in  developing  a  proper  public  attitude  towards 
education,  and  the  j)ublic  schools  in  particular.    Gradually,  education 

"Manuel,  "School  and  Society,"  Dec.  M,  1<>21,  p.  6,},?. 
'«  Updegraff,  H.,  X.  E.  .\.  Proceedings,  1911,  pp  43341. 


92  COUNTY  teachers'  institutes  in  PENNSYLVANIA 

has  been  reduced  to  a  science  and  teaching  raised  to  a  profession  in 
which  its  members  have  been  slowly  but  surely  required  to  show  real 
professional  training.  The  teacher  of  fifty  years  ago,  indeed  a 
good  deal  less  than  that,  finds  that  his  or  her  simple  knowledge  of 
the  three  R's  cannot  cope  with  present  day  requirements  for  certifi- 
cation when  at  least  a  high  school  education  and  a  two  year  Normal 
School  course  are  essential.  Teaching  has  become  a  job,  requiring 
a  specialized  training  which  the  teacher  training  school  alone  can 
give.  Basic  professional  training  of  teachers,  is,  therefore,  incon- 
ceivable in  any  five  (5)  day  or  series  of  five  (5)  day  institutes,  no 
matter  how  highly  organized  and  programmed. 

The  analysis  of  the  county  institute  program  in  the  preceding 
chapter  gave  an  indication  of  how  sadly  lacking  is  the  ordinary 
program  in  those  subjects  which  to-day  loom  large  in  the  profes- 
sionally specialized  educational  courses  in  our  colleges  and  Normal 
Schools.  No  one  will  deny  that  inspirational  and  professional  zeal 
are  necessary,  not  only  in  teaching,  but  in  every  other  learned 
profession.  It  must  be  admitted  that  education  has  no  monopoly  of 
those  dynamic  spiritual  forces,  and  it  is  almost  a  derogatory  aim  to 
say  that  inspiration  should  furnish  one-half  of  the  instruction  in  the 
institute  program.  It  is  merely  sufficient  to  add  that  inspiration 
and  general  instruction  will  not,  alone,  earn  certification.  It  is 
concrete,  specific  training  for  the  real  job  of  teaching  that  will 
count,  just  as  such  training  will  count  in  law  and  medicine.  The 
institute,  to  function,  should,  therefore,  help  teachers  to  meet 
specific  problems  in  their  work,  and  in  the  daily  development  of  new 
conceptions  in  education.  Ruediger  has  well  pointed  this  out 
in  discussing  the  in-service  "professional  side"  of  the  teacher: 

On  the  professional  side  we  should  in  general  place  such  matters  as  (1)  the  instruc- 
tion of  new  methods  and  devices,  e.  g.,  the  introduction  of  standard  scales  and  tests; 
(2)  changes  in  the  curriculum,  e.  g.,  the  introduction  of  nature  study;  community  civics, 
or  school  banks;  (3)  significant  modifications  in  rules  and  in  administration,  e.  g., 
the  lengthening  of  the  school  day  or  the  adoption  of  the  six-six  plan;  and  (4)  the  con- 
certed study  of  those  contributions  to  educational  Hterature  that  are  of  group  interest, 
e.g.,  typical  school  surveys.   .  .** 

The  institute  does  not  do  this.  The  institute  should  help  the  inex- 
perienced teachers.  It  does  not  do  so.  The  institute  should  focus 
attention  on  the  rural  school.  It  fails  to  perform  this  function,  even 
tho  a  large  proportion  of  the  teachers  are  attending  county  institutes, 

"  Ruediger,  Schoolmen's  Week  Proceedings,  1917,  p.  63. 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  93 

are  rural  teachers.  If  teachers  were  bein<^  trained  in  service,  their 
technique  of  teaching,  their  understanding  of  modern  methods, 
devices,  and  changing  conceptions  of  education,  would  he  improved. 
The  institute  cannot  be  credited  with  any  such  deliberate  intentions, 
judged  by  the  instruction  given. '^ 

What  do  competent  authorities  or  those  capable  of  judging  say? 
We  may  be  justified  in  saying  that  those  who  arc  in  immediate  and 
direct  supervision  of  teachers  should  know.  Two  hundred  district 
sui^erintendents  and  supervising  i)rincipals  from  all  sections  of 
the  state  answered  this  question: 

To  what  degree  does  the  Institute  actually  function  as  an  agency  to  improve 
teachers  in  ser\'ice? 

These  were  the  replies: 
Much  68 

Little  124 

None  7 

County  and  district  superintendents  themselves  have  expressed 
themselves  on  this  same  query.  Of  the  66  county  superintendents  in 
the  state,  1  said  teachers  showed  no  improvement  after  the  Institute; 
5  little;  28  medium;  24  much;  6  did  not  answer. 

District  superintendents  who  hold  separate  institutes  said: 
0,  none;  4,  little;  15,  medium;  9,  much;  14  did  not  answer. 

Superintendents  and  supervising  principals  who  unite  with  the 
county  institute  said: 

4,  none;  little,  15;  medium,  15;  much,  5;  doubt,  1. 

The  combined  judgment  of  county,  district,  superintendent  and 
supervising  principals — 128  in  all  was  as  follows: 

None,  5;  little,  24;  medium,  58;  much,  40. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  practically  all  these  supervisory 
officers  not  only  attend  the  institutes,  but  have  an  unusual  oppor- 
tunity to  observe  whether  or  not  the  instruction  given  at  the  institutes 
functions.  Only  one-third  of  these  otlicials  claimed  that  the  teachers 
they  observed  had  im])roved  "much";  25  per  cent  believed  they  had 
improved  "little"  or  "none,"  while  45  i)cr  cent  thought  that  the 
improvement  shown  was  "medium." 

What  is  the  relative  value  of  the  institute  in  the  improvement  of 
teachers  in  service  as  compared  with  other  agencies?  This  is  a  difficult 
question  to  answer  statistically.     However,  it  would  seem  without 

"  Chapter  on  "Programs,"  q.  v. 


94  COUNTY  teachers'  institutes  in  PENNSYLVANIA 

need  of  proof  that  the  summer  school  with  its  six  weeks  of  continuous 
courses,  or  the  intra  year  college  or  extension  courses  would  be  in- 
finitely more  efficient.  As  has  been  shown,  the  institute  offers  no 
continuous  program;  its  instruction  is  more  or  less  promiscuous,  of  the 
hit  or  miss  kind;  and  tho  it  may  offer  teachers  some  acquaintance 
with  certain  tendencies,  it  now  gives  very  little,  if  any  real  training 
for  service,  or  incentive  for  prosecuting  organized  professional  study. 

Any  effective  program  of  teacher  improvement  must  offer  some 
opportunities  for  continuous  growth  thru  attendance  at  some  insti- 
tution or  thru  organized  courses  of  professional  reading,  supplemented 
with  definite  checking  systems  for  determining  achievement  or 
accomplishment  of  assigned  or  required  courses.  All  the  agencies 
mentioned  for  improving  teaching  will  do  this  except  those  agencies 
which  are  of  the  "convention  type,"  in  which  class  the  institute  as  at 
present  generally  organized  and  conducted  will  fall.  One  serious 
fault  of  the  institute  is  its  failure  to  do  this  very  thing.  There  is 
no  relationship  between  the  program  of  one  year  with  that  of  another; 
there  is  no  standard  set  for  the  continued  professional  growth  of 
teachers  after  the  closing  of  the  institute.  There  is  very  little 
preparation  for  this  institute.  This  is  very  well  shown  by  the 
fact  that  in  only  eight  counties  in  53  were  there  committees  or 
organizations  of  any  kind  whatever  to  take  charge  of  the  profes- 
sional reading  or  literature  activities;  whereas  in  only  seven  counties 
were  there  committees  to  organize  educational  meetings  as  a  follow- 
up  of  the  county  institutes.  True,  in  nearly  every  county  a  list 
of  professional  books  was  given,  but  there  is  no  way  to  know  to 
what  extent  county  superintendents  check  up  their  suggestions 
for  professional  reading. 

Apropos  of  determining  the  relative  value  of  the  institute  as  a 
teacher  improvement  agency,  the  county  superintendents  of  Penn- 
sylvania were  asked  this  question:  "If  it  were  legally,  financially, 
and  otherwise  possible,  would  you  substitute  summer  session  work 
for  teachers  in  Normal  School  or  College  for  the  institute?"  The 
answers  by  county  superintendents  were  as  follows: 

Yes,  17;  no,  30;  doubtful,  5;  no  answers,  11. 
The  answers  by  district  sperintendents  were  as  follows: 

Yes,  59;  no,  21;  doubtful,  1;  no  answers,  13. 
The  combined  judgment  of  133  superintendents  who  answered  the 
question  is  as  follows: 

Yes,  76;  no,  51;  doubtful,  6. 


COUNTY  TEACHF.RS'  IXSTITUTrS  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  95 

The  following  question,  worded  differently,  but  of  the  same 
purport,  was  put  to  the  principals  and  supcrvisinp;  princii)als  in  the 
stale,  of  whom  200,  from  nearly  every  county,  answered:  //  it 
uere  in  every  way  possible  and  within  your  power,  would  you  employ 
or  prefer  to  employ  the  money  now  being  spent  by  your  district  to  pay 
for  teachers'  attendance  at  the  Institute  for  other  school  purposes  instead 
of  attendance  at  Institutes?  The  answers  were:  Yes,  138;  no,  58. 
This  is  a  clear  indication  that  there  must  be  other  purposes  to 
which  the  institute  money  can  be  put  in  order  to  secure  the  improve- 
ment of  teachers  in  service. 

The  question  was  followed  up  by  another  in  which  supervising 
principals  should  indicate  two  ways  in  which  the  equivalent  sum 
would  be  spent,  giving  first  and  second  choice.  These  choices 
are  valuable  in  that  they  express  the  judgment  of  administrative 
officials  who  have  to  deal  daily  with  the  teacher  problem  so  far  as  its 
improvement  is  concerned.    These  choices  follow: 

Table  XXVI — Improvement  Agencies 

Methods  of  Improving  Ser\'ice  No.  First  Choice    No.  Second  Choice 

a.  Closer  supen'ision 27  6 

b.  Additional   teacher  or   teachers  for   regular 

or  special  subjec  s 16  16 

c.  Better  librar>'  facilities 4  15 

d.  Sending  deser\'ing  teachers  to  summer  school 

by  pa>'ing  all  or  part  expenses 27  19 

e.  Better  salaries  for  some  or  all  teachers. .. .  18  21 

f.  Pay-ing  e.xpenses  to  selected  teachers  for  ob- 

ser\'ing  work  in  other  schools 12  31 

g.  Securing  e.xperienced  and  successful  educators 

lo  address  teacher   on  specific  problems  32  32 

It  is  evident  from  these  choices  that  those  supervising  principals 
who  prefer  to  expend  the  equivalent  institute  attendance  money 
would  spend  it  on  (1)  Securing  experienced  educators  to  address  their 
own  teachers  on  specific  problems,  and  (2)  Sending  deserving  teachers 
to  summer  schools. 

The  supervising  principals  were  also  rec}uested  to  name  the  three 
agencies  which  they  thought  would  improve  teachers  in  service  most. 
The  summary  of  first,  second,  and  third  choices  are  given  in  Table 
XXVII. 

It  will  be  seen  that  supervisory  officials'  judgment  is  pronouncedly 
in  favor  of  agencies    other  than  the  institute  to  improve  teachers  in 


96 


COUNTY  TEACHERS    INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 


Table  XXVII — Impro\t:ment  Agencies 


Agencies 


Summer  School  for  4  or  6  weeks 

Professional  Reading 

Closer  supervision 

Correspondence  courses 

Teachers'  Associations  or  Conventions .  .  . 

Demonstration  classes  either  in  own 
schools  or  elsewhere 

Helping  teachers  for  rural  schools 

County  or  City  Institutes 

Visiting  other  schools 

Local  Institutes 

Two  or  three  day  educational  meetings 
stress  big  movements  in  education  and 
make  for  professional  spirit 


First 


116 
39 
10 

5 
3 

11 
1 
3 
9 
0 


Second 


26 

42 

6 

6 

12 

42 
2 
3 

46 

4 


15 


Third 


15 

15 

20 

9 

5 

23 

1 

11 

23 

4 


48 


Weighted 
Points 


415 

216 

62 

36 

38 

140 
8 

26 
142 

12 


99 


service.  Even  one-third  of  the  county  superintendents  would  prefer 
the  summer  school  (1919);  seventy-three  per  cent  of  the  district 
superintendents,  and  seventy  (70)  per  cent  of  the  supervising  princi- 
pals would  prefer  to  spend  the  equivalent  sum  of  money  in  other 
ways.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  supervising  principals  would 
prefer  to  spend  the  equivalent  institute  fund  in  the  following  order: 
(1)  securing  experienced  and  successful  educatiors  to  address  teachers 
on  specific  problems;  (2)  Sending  deserving  teachers  to  summer 
school  by  paying  all  or  part  of  expenses;  (3)  closer  supervision;  (4) 
better  salaries  for  some  or  all  teachers,  and  (5)  additional  teacher  or 
teachers  for  regular  or  special  subjects.  It  is  very  pertinent  to  the 
inquiry  to  call  attention  to  the  first  preference,  viz.  discussions  by 
authorities  of  specific  problems. 

Teachers^  Preferences  of  Improvement  Agencies 

Following  the  plan  of  the  inquiry,  groups  of  teachers  were  asked 
to  give  their  preferences,  if  a  choice  were  possible,  as  to  whether 
they  preferred  (a)  institutes  as  at  present  organized,  (b)  two  or  three 
days  educational  meetings,  (c)  well  organized  system  of  local  insti- 
tutes, or  (d)  summer  sessions.  In  all  1376  teachers  in  six  counties, 
four  urban  districts,  and  a  group  in  a  summer  session  (State  College, 
1921)  answered  this  question.  (Appendix,  q.v.  No.  10.)  Table 
XXVIII  gives  the  summary  of  these  replies. 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTFS  I\   I'KNNSYIAANIA  97 

Table  XXVIII — Type  Teacher  Training  Agencies  Preferred  by  Teachers 


Type 

First 

Second 

Third 

Weighted 
-Points 

Per 
Cent. 

a.     Institute 

890 

176 

68 

242 

179 
364 

288 
306 

83 
297 
340 
251 

3091 
1553 
1120 
1589 

42. 

g.    Two  or  Three  Day  Educational  Meetings 
c.     Local  Institutes 

21.2 
15.2 

d.    Summer  Sessions 

21.6 

On  the  surface  it  appears  that  an  overwhelming  number  of  these 
1376  teachers  prefer  the  institute  as  at  present  organized  and  con- 
ducted (890  or  64  per  cent  of  first  choices).  This,  however,  is  far 
from  the  real  situation,  when  we  consider  the  first,  second,  and 
third  choices.  This  shows  that  58  per  cent  do  not  prefer  the  institute. 
Even  when  the  first  choices  are  only  considered,  we  still  find  that 

36  per  cent  do  not  prefer  the  institute.  This  is  a  very  substantial 
number.  When  the  weighted  points  are  taken  into  consideration 
we  find  that  summer  sessions  have  a  preference  of  21.6  per  cent. 
It  would  be  interesting  to  know  teachers'  reactions  at  present  after 
12,000  teachers  of  the  state  attended  summer  schools  in  the  summer 
of  1921,  and  29,000  attended  in  the  summer  of  1922.  As  has  been 
pointed  out,  64  teachers  out  of  134,  who  answered  this  inquiry  at 
State  College  in  the  summer  of  1921,  preferred  the  summer  session, 

37  the  institute,  and  21  two  or  three  day  educational  meetings. 
These  choices  are  a  decided  contrast  to  the  preferences  expressed 
before  the  movement  for  higher  certification  began. 

Four  Urban  Groups 

Let  us  consider  the  preferences  of  the  four  urban  districts,  the 
summer  session  group,  and  the  rural  and  town  groups  of  two  typical 
counties,  Clearfield  and  Northumberland.  We  find  in  the  four  urban 
districts  that  58  out  of  132  teachers  prefer  summer  sessions,  31  two  or 
three  day  educational  meetings,  and  29  institutes.  Out  of  134  teachers 
at  State  College  Summer  School,  64  preferred  summer  sessions,  37 
institutes,  and  21  two  or  three  day  educational  meetings.  In  other 
words,  in  these  two  groups,  253  being  town  or  urban  teachers,  only  66 
favored  institutes,  122  summer  sessions,  52  two  or  three  day  educa- 
tional meetings  in  each  county.  It,  therefore,  appears  that  in  a  small 
sampling  of  town  teachers,  representing  nearly  every  county  in  the 
state,  about  25  per  cent,  favor  institutes,  46  per  cent,  favor  summer 


98  COUNTY  teachers'  institutes  in  PENNSYLVANIA 

sessions,  and  20  per  cent,  two  or  three  day  educational  meetings. 
The  remaining  11  per  cent,  either  favored  local  institutes,  or  did  not 
answer. 

Rural  and  Town  Groups 

It  is  urged  that  county  institutes  are  necessary  because  of  the 
large  groups  of  rural  teachers  who  are  away  from  educational  facili- 
ties and  who  need  the  institute  to  put  them  in  touch  with  new 
thought,  new  methods,  and  new  contacts  and  outlooks.  The  rural 
teacher  population  needs  to  be  analyzed  before  such  a  conclusion 
can  be  claimed.  We  need  especially  to  know  the  attitude  of  rural 
teachers  towards  increased  professional  preparation  which  mani- 
festly cannot  be  secured  in  the  county  institute.  An  analysis  of  the 
rural  and  town  teacher  population  in  Clearfield  and  Northumberland 
Counties  reveals  the  following  suggestive  facts: 

(a)  Rural  Group-182 

Number  of  rural  teachers  in  the  two  counties  answeiing: 

Clearfield 136 

Northumberland 46       182 

Number  of  rural  teachers  in  two  counties  with  Normal  School  and  Permanent 
Certificates: 

Clearfield 22 

Northumberland 7         29 

Number  wdth  Normal  School  and  Permanent  Certificates  preferring  Institute  23 

Number  with  Normal  School  and  Permanent  Certificates  preferring  Summer 

Session 6 

Number  with  Professional  and  Provisional  Certificates 153 

Number  with  Professional  and  Provisional  Certificates  favoring  Institute 97 

Number  with  Professional  and  Provisional  Certificates  favoring  Summer  Sessions    38 

(b)  Town  Group — 171 

Number  of  Town  teachers  with  Normal  and  Permanent  Certificates: 

Clearfield 80 

Northumberland 32       112 

Number  of  Town  teachers  with  professional  and  provisional  Certificates: 

Clearfield 41 

Northumberland 18        59 

Number  Town  teachers  with  Normal  and  Permanent  Certificates  favoring  Inst.  78 
Number  Town  teachers  with  Professional  and  Provisional  Certificates  favoring 

Institute 36 

Number  Town  teachers  with  Normal  and  Permanent  Certificates  favoring  Summer 

Sessions 16 

Number  ToM-n  teachers  with  Professional  and  Provisional  Certificates  favoring 

Summer  Sessions 20 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  99 

It  is  plain  that  of  the  153  rural  teachers  who  have  only  a  pro- 
fessional or  provisional  certificates,  97  or  63  per  cent  i)refer  institutes, 
39  or  25  per  cent  summer  sessions.  Of  the  rural  group  of  29  who 
have  rej^ular  Normal  or  Permanent  certificates,  23  or  80  per  cent 
prefer  institutes;  while  six  or  20  per  cent  prefer  summer  sessions. 

Of  the  town  teachers  112  out  of  171  have  Normal  or  Permanent 
certificates.  Of  these  112,  78  or  69  per  cent  prefer  institutes,  and 
16  or  14  per  cent  jirefer  summer  sessions.  59  out  of  171  town  teachers 
have  Professor  or  Provisional  certificates.  Of  this  group  36  or  61 
per  cent  prefer  the  institute,  20  or  34  per  cent  summer  sessions. 
The  signiticant  facts  in  this  analysis  of  preferences  in  town  and  rural 
groups  in  two  typical  counties  of  the  state,  representing  353  teachers, 
nearly  equally  divided  in  number  are: 

1.  Sixty-five  and  one  half  per  cent  (65.5)  per  cent  of  town  teachers  held  a  form 
of  permanent  certificates,  while  only  16  per  cent  of  the  rural  group  held  permanent 
certificates,  i.  e.,  Normal  School  Diplomas  or  a  form  of  State  Permanent. 

2.  Of  teachers  holding  a  form  of  Permanent  Certificate,  71.6  per  cent  preferred 
county  institutes  to  summer  sessions. 

3.  Of  teachers  holding  a  form  of  temporary  certificate,  mainly  provisional,  62  per 
cent  prefer  county  institutes,  27  per  cent  summer  sessions,  11  per  cent,  two  day 
educational  meetings,  local  institutes,  or  not  answering. 

It  thus  appears  that  those  who  need  the  summer  session  work  in 
order  to  secure  a  higher  form  of  certificate,  preferred  the  county 
institute  to  summer  sessions  for  teacher  improvement,  in  the  ratio 
of  62  to  27.  Teachers  who  do  not  need  the  summer  session  for 
certification  purposes  (1919),  had  a  strong  preference  for  the  county 
institute.  It  is  logical  to  expect  that  teachers  who  have  secured  a 
form  of  permanent  certificate  would  so  prefer,  but  it  is  rather  strange 
that  teachers  who  do  not  have  permanent  certification  should  prefer 
the  institute  to  summer  session.  However,  an  analysis  of  the  attend- 
ance at  our  summer  sessions  before  last  year  (1921)  would  undoubt- 
edly reveal  the  fact  that  those  attending  summer  sessions  are  in  the 
main  town  teachers  with  permanent  certificates. 

The  striking  situation  that  we  are  concerned  with  at  this  point  is 
not  that  teachers  with  some  form  of  permanent  certificate — State 
Normal  Certificate,  Diploma,  or  State  Permanent — have  a  strong 
preference  for  Institutes,  but  that  teachers  with  minimum  profes- 
sional accomplishments,  should  express  such  a  preference.  This  fact 
at  once  suggests  whether  or  not  Seerley  was  right  when  in  1908 
he  made  this  assertion: 


100  COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 

...  it  (the  institute)  has  also  had  the  counter  effect  of  making  teachers  satisfied 
with  minimum  educational  qualifications,  and  with  empirical  training,  so  that  the 
majority  of  them  have  long  since  concluded  that  when  they  have  enough  scholarship 
to  secure  a  brief  license  to  teach,  and  have  added  to  this  annual  attendance  at  the 
teachers'  institute,  they  have  shown  sufficient  professional  evidence  of  their  individual 
capacity  as  educators. '' 

In  other  words,  it  would  appear  as  though  the  Institute  actually  up 
to  1919  connived  at  minimum  certification.  It  would  appear  that 
teachers  who  held  low  type  certificates  did  not  have  a  great  degree 
of  persistence  to  secure  a  higher  type. 

This  tendency  is  strangely  corroborated  by  a  recent  study  on 
"The  Status  of  the  Rural  Teacher.''^^ 

It  is  evident  that  only  38  per  cent  of  the  number  of  teachers  reporting  had  had 
supplementary  training  during  service. 

This  refers  to  the  one  room  rural  teacher  who  held  a  type  of  temporary 
certificate — provisional,  professional,  and  also  permanent.  It  is  a 
coincident  that  in  this  independent  study  in  another  field,  it  should 
develop  that  in  these  two  typical  counties,  only  38  per  cent  preferred 
other  types  of  teacher  improvement  agencies.  King  further  analyzes 
the  agencies  employed  by  the  38  per  cent  as  follows: 

8  per  cent  in  summer  academies,  10  per  cent  in  summer  local  or  county  normal 
schools,  12  per  cent  in  summer  State  Normal  Schools,  and  6  per  cent  in  summer  college 
courses  for  teachers. 

In  this  distribution  there  is  another  coincident  situation,  which 
should  give  room  for  thought  as  to  the  lack  of  persistence  of  teachers 
with  low  type  certificates  for  the  higher  and  more  permanent  type. 
A  very  small  percentage  of  these  teachers  attend  summer  college 
courses  for  teachers,  according  to  King  only  6  per  cent.  This  per- 
centage is  also  corroborated  by  an  investigation  carried  on  by  the 
writer  at  State  College,  summer  of  1921,  when  in  a  group  of  411 
teachers  taking  special  methods  courses  in  the  elementary  subjects, 
only  25  were  one  room  rural  teachers,  or  six  (6)  per  cent,  the  same 
per  cent  reported  by  King  as  attending  summer  college  courses. 

To  sum  up  the  possible  relationship  that  exists  between  the 
persistence  with  which  teachers  holding  temporary  certificates  with 
their  desires  for  teachers'  institutes  and  summer  sessions,  it  may  be 
said  that  80  per  cent  of  the  rural  teachers  in  the  two  typical  counties 
studied  held  temporary  certificates;  (this  per  cent  also  corresponds 

1^  Seerley,  Homer,  "Practical  Value  of  Institute  System,"  "Educational  Re- 
view," Nov.  1908,  p.  357. 

1*  King,  L.  A.,  "Status  of  Rural  Teacher  in  Pa.,"  Ch.  V. 


COUNTY  TKACHKRS'   I  N  SI  ITITKS  IN   PKN  N^  VIA  "ANIA  101 

pretty  closely  witli  the  per  cent  reported  by  King,"  who  says  that 
76  per  cent  of  rural  one  room  teachers  hold  provisional  or  professional 
certificates),  that  oi  this  80  per  cent,  only  27  per  cent  prefer  summer 
sessions  to  the  institute;  that  this  preference  undoubtedly  shows  a 
certain  attitude  of  this  group  towards  professional  growth  and  zeal; 
that  this  attitude  is  contradictory  of  the  claim  made  for  the  institute; 
that  "many  times  it  stimulates  teachers  to  a  more  serious  view  of 
the  profession  and  to  enlarged  scholarship,"  as  one  superintendent 
has  put  it;  that  a  different  attitude  is  to  be  expected  from  a  group 
of  teachers  in  service  in  our  rural  schools,  "25  per  cent  of  whom 
have  had  only  an  elementary  education,  and  that  2  per  cent  of 
these  25  per  cent  had  not  even  completed  this  elementary  training."^" 
Legal  enactments,  of  course,  will  now  (1922)  demand  that  such  teach- 
ers secure  by  1927  the  type  of  certificate  that  represents  a  minimum 
of  a  two  year  Normal  School  course,  or  its  equivalent.  This,  however, 
does  not  eliminate  the  facts  of  the  preferences  in  the  two  counties 
studied. 

Teachers'  Reasons  for  Retaining  County  Institute 
Teachers  in  answer  to  the  question  whether  or  not  the  institute 
should  be  abolished,  throw  an  important  light  on  the  actual  function- 
ing of  the  institute  as  a  means  of  improving  them  in  service.  A 
very  large  majority  of  teachers  are  in  favor  of  retaining  the  institute. 
What  reasons  are  given  for  its  retention?  Not  all  teachers — in  fact 
only  a  few — gave  reasons  for  its  retention.  An  examination  in  two 
counties,  Chester  and  Susquehanna,  shows  that  out  of  239  who 
answered  the  inquiry,  only  150  gave  reasons  for  the  retention  of 
the  institute.  These  replies  are  typical.  We  note  the  following: 
Tari.e  XXIX — Rkasons  for  Rete.vtion  of  Institute 

Reasons  Chester  Susquehanna 

1.  Helpful  and  valuable 21  4 

2.  Inspirational 34  29 

3.  New  Ideas  and  New  Methods ^i  4 

4.  Solves  Problems 4 

5.  Discussion  of  School  Problems 1 

6.  Helps  inexperienced 3 

7.  All  others 7  9 

101  49 

'•  King,  "Status  of  Rural  Teacher  in  Pa.,"  Op.  Cit.  Ch.  V. 

"  "Study  in  Teacher  Shortage,"   Pa.  State   iJept.  of   Ixlucation,  unpublished, 
quoted  by  King  in  0\).  Cit.,  Ch.  IV. 


102  t'brNTV  lEACHERS'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 

These  answers  are  typical  of  those  found  in  ten  other  counties.  They 
are  merely  valuable  to  show  that  teachers  regard  "inspiration"  as  an 
important  reason  for  retaining  the  institute.  It  is  noticeable,  how- 
ever, that  33  out  of  101  replies  in  Chester  County  stressed  "new 
methods  and  ideas,"  a  reason  easily  understood  when  the  institute 
program  of  this  county  is  studied. 

We  may  seriously  question,  therefore,  whether  these  answers  are 
an  indication  that  the  institute  actually  functioned  in  these  two 
cases  in  doing  what  is  ordinarily  meant  by  improvement  of  teachers  in 
service. 

Judgment  of  Educators 

In  addition  to  the  judgment  of  county  and  district  superintend- 
ents, supervising  principals,  and  teachers  as  to  the  value  of  the 
institute  as  an  agency  in  the  improvement  of  teachers  in  service, 
we  have  the  judgment  of  a  number  of  educators  in  many  fields — men 
who  have  worked  on  the  institute,  who  have  observed  its  organiza- 
tion and  conduct,  and  whose  observation  is  valuable  because  of  its 
source  and  reliability. 

Dr.  Frank  P.  Graves,  Dean  of  School  of  Education,  University  of  Pa.  {1919):  "We 
could  far  better  afford  to  spend  the  public  money  in  furnishing  opportunities  for 
serious  study  at  first  class  summer  schools  to  the  ambitious  teachers  than  in  lavishing 
it  for  the  indifferent  ones  upon  the  vaudeville  and  hot  air  that  too  often  passes  as  a 
teachers'  institute.''^! 

Supt.  Balsbaugh,  Lebanon:  "The  actual  results  in  teacher  training  claimed  for 
institutes  are  usually  greatly  overestimated  by  those  who  conduct  the  institutes. 
Many  allow  their  enthusiasm  to  direct  their  judgment  and  they  accept  appearances 
as  results."^-    * 

Annual  Teachers'  Institutes  .   .   .  have  for  some  years  been  under  sus- 
picion as  wise  means  of  investing  public  funds  and  they  are  quite  often 
a  source  of  dissatisfaction  to  the  older  and  better  prepared  teachersP 
V       The  following  excerpts  are  taken  from  replies  to  an  inquiry  by  the 
writer  on  Institutes. 

(a)  In  your  experience  with  County  Teachers'  Institutes,  have  you  found  that 
they  actually  contribute  to  the  professional  training  of  teachers? 

(b)  If  so,  in  what  ways?-^ 

-'  Schoolmen's  Week  Proceedings — 1917,  p.  73. 

-2  Schoolmen's  Week  Proceedings — 1917,  p.  75. 

^'Ruediger — "Spirit  of  Teaching  Corps" — School  and  Society,  Jan.  26,  1918. 

^^  Inquiry  to  Educators,  March  1,  1922.    q.  v.  Appendix. 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  103 

Dr.  P.  P.  Cldxlon — former  U.  S.  Com.  of  Education:  "I  believed  that  the  institutes 
were  accomplishing  much  good  in  the  way  of  creating  spirit  ami  enthusiasm  and 
co-operation.  On  the  other  hand,  I  have  wondered  just  what  other  results,  if  any, 
came  from  them.  Ver>'  frequently  the  lectures  do  not  take  hold  on  any  very  definite 
problems  of  school  management  or  instruction.  Many  of  those  which  I  have  heard, 
and  which  seemed  to  be  most  pleasing  to  the  teachers,  seemed  to  me  to  have  very 
little  practical  value,  except  for  the  things  which  I  have  already  mentioned." 

Dr.  J .  II.  Minnick,  Dean  School  of  Education,  Univ.  of  Pa.:  "Only  in  a  very  small 
way.  My  only  experience  was  as  a  county  school  teacher.  The  institutes  were  very 
poor.  The  most  I  got  out  of  them  was  association  with  other  teachers.  This  docs  not 
say  they  could  not  be  made  worth  while." 

Dr.  D.  .1.  Anderson,  Stiite  College,  Pa.:  "They  make  a  vory  slight  contriljution 
if  any  at  all.    A  few  good  things  are  driven  home  anil  remembered  by  those  who  hear." 

Dr.  C.  E.  Cluidscy,  Dean  of  School  of  Education,  Univ.  of  III.:  "Yes,  when  they  are 
really  professional  institutions.  The  opportunity  for  teachers  of  the  county  to  hear 
at  first-hand  the  ideas  of  leaders  of  educational  thought  and  practice  ought  to  have 
certain  e(Tect<  in  improving  their  work  and  stimulating  them  to  a  higher  type  of 
educational  activity." 

Dr.  \V .  C.  Riudiger,  George  Washington  University,  Washington,  D.  C:  "Very 
little." 

Dr.  George  D.  Sirayer,  Columbia  University,  N.  Y.:  "In  my  opinion,  county  insti- 
tutes as  ordinarily  organized  have  little  value  for  the  professional  training  of  teachers. 
In  some  cases  these  institutes  have  I)een  organized  in  such  manner  as  to  make  them 
valuable.  Where  teachers  have  been  definitely  organized  in  groups  corresponding  to 
their  professional  work,  I  mean  b}'  grades,  rural  schools,  high  schools,  and  the  like, 
and  where  they  have  been  asked  to  consider  definite  problems  of  teaching,  organization, 
discipline,  and  the  like,  involving  their  discussion  of  these  problems  some  good  has 
been  accomplished." 

W.  S.  Deffenbaugh,  Specialist  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education:  "In  reply  to  your  inquiry 
regarding  teachers'  institutes,  I  would  saj'  that  a  teachers'  institute,  as  usually  con- 
ducted contributes  ver>'  little  to  the  professional  training  of  teachers." 

Dr.  Payson  Smith,  Com.  of  Education,  Mass.:  "Out  of  my  experience  in  the  insti- 
tutes of  Pennsylvania  and  other  states,  my  conclusion  is  that  they  are  of  undoubted 
value.  They  ser\'e  as  a  means  of  impressing  on  teachers  the  magnitude  and  the  dignity 
of  the  profession  with  which  they  arc  connected.  This  is  a  matter  of  no  small  value 
especially  to  beginning  teachers  and  to  teachers  in  small  schools." 

W.  II.  Allen,  Director,  Institute  Public  Service,  Xnv  York:  "There  arc  some 
institutes  that  are  demoralizing  and  chloroforming  and  others  that  are  a  veritable 
baptism  in  their  vision." 

Dr.  Frank  P.  Graves,  Comm.  of  Education,  Stale  of  X.  Y.:  "It  depends  upon  the 
institute.  Ten  years  ago  the  Pa.  institutes  were  worth  little,  except  as  vaudeville. 
Lately,  especially  since  the  great  educational  leader,  Dr.  Finegan  came  to  the  State, 
they  have  become  more  departmentalized  and  efTcctivc." 

(b)  "Presenting  new  phase  of  educational  and  administration,  content,  and 
methods.    I  consider  the  so-called  'inspirational  address'  simply  a  disguise  for  'hot  air.'" 

Dr.  Chas.  II.  Judd-Director  of  School  of  Education,  Chicago  University:  "I  think 
a  great  deal  depends  on  the  teacher  herself  in  this  matter.  If  she  has  done  some 
reading  in  advance  of  the  institute  and  if  she  is  stimulated  to  follow  the  institute  with 


104  COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 

some  professional  reading,  I  think  that  the  outcome  is  alwaj's  advantageous.  On 
the  other  hand,  I  have  known  teachers  who  seemed  to  me  to  get  very  little  indeed 
out  of  these  institutes. 

I  think  some  of  the  poorest  educational  addresses  that  I  have  ever  heard  have  been 
made  at  these  institutes.  They  seemed  to  me  to  be  utterly  without  justification. 
When  I  contemplate  that  type  of  address  and  the  careless  teacher,  I  say — discontinue 
the  whole  business." 

Dr.  W.  C.  Bagley,  Teachers'  College,  New  York:  "I  have  had  a  good  deal  of  experi- 
ence in  teachers'  institutes.  Sometimes  I  have  felt  on  returning  from  an  institute  that 
my  time  had  been  well  spent  and  that  the  teachers  assembled  gained  something  from 
the  experience.  More  frequently  I  have  been  forced  to  conclude  that  my  own  time  was 
wasted  and  the  time  of  the  teachers  worse  than  wasted." 

Dr.  L.  D.  Coffman,  President  University  of  Minnesota:  "I  have  alwaj^s  felt  that 
we  are  spending  much  more  money  on  county  teachers'  institutes  than  we  should,  and 
yet,  on  the  other  hand,  I  am  thoroughly  convinced  that  they  have  been  a  tremendous 
force  throughout  the  country  in  improving  the  professional  attitude  of  teachers,  but  it 
seems  to  me  that  the  long  institute,  that  is  the  five  day  institute,  has  practically 
served  its  purpose,  and  that  only  an  occasional  person  is  thoroughly  well  quaUfied  in 
ever}'  way  to  address  teachers  by  the  thousands. 

Most  county  institutes  in  the  past  have  suffered  because  the  only  one  prepared 
to  speak  was  the  speaker  himself.  The  teachers  in  attendance  are  not  expected  to  make 
any  preparation  whatsoever.  They  came  to  listen.  Listeners  who  have  nothing  to 
contribute  seldom  ever  carry  much  away  with  them." 

Mr.  A.  C.  Monahan,  former  Specialist  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education:  "The  institute 
does  so  much  to  keep  teachers  interested  professionalh'  in  her  work  that  it  is  still,  I 
think,  ver\'  valuable." 

Dr.  J.  H.  Kelley,  Secretary  P.S.E.A.  Harrishurg,  Pa.:  "Yes — 

1.  Methods  of  Teaching 

2.  Professional  Spirit 

3.  Broaden  Educational  Outlook 

4.  Inspirational  Uphft. 

Dr.  J.  L.  Eisenberg,  Prin.  Slippery  Rock  State  Normal  Sclwol:  "In  many  counties, 
no.    In  many  counties  rather  remote  from  the  centers  of  population,  yes,  very  much  so. 

B}'  instruction  in  methods,  management  and  organization  of  the  school. 

Inspiration  of  the  teacher. 

By  personal  contact  of  those  engaged  in  similar  work. 

Instruction  of  the  community." 

Prin.  C.  H.  Fisher,  Bloomsburg  State  Normal  School:  "In  a  few  Institutes  where 
they  had  a  definite  program. 

Professional  attitudes. 

Educational  Outlook. 

Educational  Methods. 

Roxanna  A.  Steele,  Director  Training  School,  Bloomsburg  State  Normal:  "Well 
planned  county  institutes  have  contributed  greatly  to  the  professional  training  of 
teachers.  The  instances,  however,  are  rare.  The  ten  day  institute  is  far  superior  to 
the  so-called  five  day  institute  which  is  usually  practically  a  three  and  one-half  day 
institute.  The  summer  school  has  almost  entirely  done  away  with  the  necessity  of  a 
ten  day  institute,  and  anything  less  than  this  is  of  questionable  value." 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  105 

Miss  Mabd  dirney,  Prof,  oj  EJudilion,  Teofhcrs  College:  "I  believe  very  heartily 
in  good  teachers'  institutes  hut  I  quite  agree  with  you  that  it  is  time  to  pause  and 
ask  whether  Pennsylvania  is  getting  value  received  for  the  large  amount  of  money 
expended  in  this  activity. 

Your  institutes  on  the  whole  are  as  gootl  as  any  I  have  ever  worked  in  and  I  have 
done  work  of  this  kind  in  about  35  states.  But  even  at  this,  I  do  not  think  you  are 
obtaining  the  results  which  might  be  secured.  .  .  . 

If  I  were  reforming  your  Pennsylvania  system  of  institutes,  1  should  urge  teachers 
to  attend  summer  schools  and  then  reduce  the  institute  to  a  three  day  meeting.  Tor 
this  shorter  meeting  I  would  then  secure  several  of  the  biggest  and  best  educational 
leaders  of  the  countr>'  as  general  lecturers  and  then  devote  two  or  three  half  day 
sessions  to  section  meetings.  With  this  I  should  keep  the  teachers  at  work  con- 
stantly during  the  j-ear  upon  constructive  plans  and  policies  which  could  be  reported 
at  the  institute." 

Miss  Margaret  T.  Maguirc,  Supervising  Principal  McCall  Public  Sclwol,  Philadel- 
phia, Pa.  who  has  appeared  on  many  Penna.  Instilulc  programs:  "My  experience  in 
Institute  work  has  been  so  varied  that  the  results  obtained  at  different  times  are  almost 
incomparable  because  of  their  great  variation.  My  general  impression  is  that  the 
short  Institute  is  the  more  successful  method  of  instructing  teachers.  When,  however, 
the  superintendent  has  control  of  his  people,  and  selects  well  trained  speakers,  organ- 
izing so  that  definite  training  in  sectional  work  is  given,  the  large  Institute  gatherings 
are  full  of  inspiration.  I  have  been  interested  to  note  that  the  teachers  in  niral  dis- 
tricts have  knowledge  of  many  of  the  great  speakers  on  the  platform.  They  really 
have  more  intelligent  knowledge  of  these  speakers  than  the  ordinary  city  teachers." 

Cofitrilmtion  of  the  Institute  on  a  Specific  Group 

It  is  a  very  difficult  matter  to  arrive  at  the  real  affect  of  an 
institute  program  on  any  group  of  teachers.  The  judgment  of  teach- 
ers and  supervisors  is  naturally  more  or  less  tinged  by  their  precon- 
ceived notion  of  the  institute.  The  only  fairly  certain  method  of 
checking  up  any  institute  would  be  a  close  follow-up  of  the  institute 
by  first  hand  observations  of  the  teachers'  school  room  procedure 
and  teaching  before  and  after  the  Institute.  This  is  very  difficult 
because  of  the  time  required  and  the  testing  that  would  have  to  be 
employed.  An  effort  was  made,  however,  to  follow  up  the  institute 
programs  of  three  counties  by  submitting  a  direct  questionnaire  to  a 
selected  group  of  50  graded  teachers,  25  high  school  teachers,  40 
rural  teachers,  and  twelve  principals.  The  questionnaire  used  is  given 
in  the  appcndi.x.  ("f")  It  will  be  noticed  that  this  inquiry  was 
direct,  specific,  and  based  entirely  on  the  principle  that  to  answer 
the  questions  specifically  would  reveal  some  functioning  of  the 
institute  program. 

No  attempt  will  be  made  to  analyze  any  more  of  the  replies  than 
will  indicate  tendencies.     It  is  admitted  that  the  number  of  those 


106 


COUNTY  TEACHEfiS    INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 


replying  is  too  small  to  base  definite  conclusions.     The  sampling, 
however,  is  fairly  suggestive. 

Question  2 

Table  XXX — Ways  in  Which  the  Last  County  Institute  Was  Valuable: 


No. 

Answering 

Inspiration 

Methods 

Information 

Graded  Group 

50 

25 
42 
12 

44 
22 
38 
10 

24 
7 

11 
6 

10 

3 
7 
0 

5 

High  School 

6 

Rural 

7 

Principals 

2 

129 

114 

48 

20 

20 

Forty-two  per  cent  of  these  three  groups  gave  inspiration  the 
highest  value;  methods  second  with  17.5  per  cent;  information  third 
with  same  per  cent.  Almost  20  per  cent  of  those  in  the  rural  group 
answering  gave  the  social  contacts  equal  value  with  methods;  five  or 
12  per  cent,  gave  school  management.  The  high  school  group  gave 
information  equal  rank  with  inspiration.  None  of  the  principals 
gave  methods;  3  of  the  high  school  teachers  gave  methods. 

Among  the  rural  teachers  three  with  31,  15,  and  15  years  of 
experience  respectively,  gave  inspiration  the  first  value.  On  the 
other  hand  one  teacher  with  17  years  of  experience,  gave  inspiration 
the  lowest  value.  Three  teachers  with  13,  8,  and  6  years  of  experience 
respectively,  gave  methods  of  teaching  the  second  value.  The  ma- 
jority of  the  principals  who  had  had  long  years  of  experience  gave 
inspiration  the  highest  value,  or  second  highest.  This  was  generally 
true  of  the  teachers  who  had  had  many  years  of  experience. 

Question  3 
Direct  Values  of  the  last  County  Institute  as  to 

a.  Errors  it  has  helped  you  to  correct; 

b.  New  methods  it  has  given  you; 

c.  Impetus  given  you  to  study  or  read: 
Professional  books — name  them: 
Non-Professional  books — name  them: 
Professional  magazines — name  them: 

d.  Devices,  schemes,  influences,  etc.,  last  institute  has  contributed  in  improving 
your  school  work. 

It  was  very  difficult  to  get  replies  to  this  question.  Perhaps, 
it  was  too  definite  and  too  exacting.    Of  the  50  graded  teachers,  23  did 


COUNTY  TKACHKRS     I  NSTI  IITI- S   I  \    1>I  \  NS  VI A   \  \  r  A  1()7 

not  answer  3a;  30  failed  to  answer  3b;  30  did   not  answer  3c;  31 
did  not  answer  3d. 

Some  of  the  errors  corrected  as  a  result  of  the  institute  were: 

Keeping  out  of  the  rut;  definite  assignments;  errors  in  arithmetic;  study  habits 
of  children;  poor  methods  in  teaching  of  reading;  irresj)onsibiiity  in  children;  careless 
reading;  too  much  time  spent  on  technical  grammar;  errors  in  paper  cutting;  errors 
in  teaching  of  reading  and  language  (7);  impatience.  Some  of  the  new  methods  used 
were  those  to  be  expected  as  the  reverse  of  the  errors  corrected.  The  metho<is  spe- 
citicaliy  mentioned  are  few  and  of  a  verj-  general  ciiaractcr.    Some  are: 

Short  cuts  in  arithmetic;  more  concrete  work  in  arithmetic;  stressing  of  aritlimetic; 
silent  reading;  better  methods  of  teaching  reading,  language,  and  drawing. 

These  replies  are  an  excellent  illustration  of  the  way  in  which 
an  institute  program  may  function.  An  examination  of  the  programs 
of  the  three  counties  from  which  these  teachers  come  shows  that  in 
one  county  Arithmetic  was  stressed  in  a  competent  and  interesting 
way,  while  in  another  the  teaching  of  Reading  or  Language  and 
demonstration  classes  in  drawing  and  paper  cutting  were  features. 
None  of  the  work  of  the  other  score  or  more  of  instructors  seems  to 
show  in  any  definite  way.  Occasionally  some  one  lecturer's  name 
is  mentioned  as  being  one  who  "inspired,"  but  nothing  specific  is 
seldom  given. 

Replies  to  the  third  question  also  indicate  that  the  graded  group 
did  not  receive  much  impetus  to  read  professionally  either  books  or 
magazines.  Only  20  out  of  50  answered  the  query  bearing  on  profes- 
sional reading.  It  is  fair  to  assume  that  any  teacher  who  did  any 
reading  as  the  result  of  the  stimulus  of  the  institute  would  take  credit 
for  it.  Of  the  42  rural  teachers,  10  said  that  they  had  been  influenced 
to  read;  32  did  not  reply  to  this  query;  16  said  that  they  were  reading 
professional  periodicals;  26  made  no  reply.  The  books  and  maga- 
zines that  were  mentioned  were  for  the  most  part  the  books  recom- 
mended on  the  county  reading  lists,  or  books  written  by  several 
of  the  lecturers,  or  specilically  mentioned  by  the  lecturers.  Of  the 
16  who  reported  out  of  the  rural  group  as  reading  professional  peri- 
odicals, 14  were  reading  the  same  one — a  magazine  sold  on  the 
so-called  "institute  tables."  Some  mentioned  "Literary  Digest," 
"Ladies  Home  Journal,"  "National  Geographic  Magazine,"  and 
the  "Pathfinder"  as  professional  periodicals.  The  replies  as  to 
devices,  schemes,  influences,  etc.  (3d)  are  meager,  and  in  most 
cases  a  repetition  of  3a.  Thirty-one  failed  among  the  graded  group 
to  answer  this.     The  high  school  group  invariably  passed  this  by. 


108 


COUNTY  TEACHERS    INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 


The  replies  to  question  4  showed  very  little  functioning  on  the 
part  of  the  institute.  The  replies  of  the  graded  and  high  school 
groups  were  negligible.  The  replies  of  the  rural  and  principal  groups 
are  summarized  as  follows: 

Question  4 
Did  the  last  County  Institute  influence  you  in  any  of  the  following 
activities? 

Table  XXXI 

Ungraded  Group       Principals — 12 
42 

Yes      No  answer      Yes  No  answer 


Use  of  building 10 

Children's  Health 12 

Co-operation  with  Home 19 

Changes  in  Course  of  Study 7 

Community  identification 5 


Some  of  the  typical  answers  under  question  4  are: 


32 

4 

8 

30 

5 

7 

23 

6 

6 

35 

2 

8—2  none 

37 

2 

9—1 

nothing 

Rural  or  Ungraded  Group 


a.  Use  of  Building- Parent-Teacher  Assn.; 
Lit.  Soc'y.;  Ill-  Lectures. 

b.  Sanitation;  correct  posture;  ventila- 
tion; fresh  air;  round  shoulders;  im- 
portance of  care  of  the  body. 

c.  Co-operation  with  home;  association 
formed;  visiting  parents  and  sick  pupils; 
interest  of  home  in  school  aroused;  better 
disciphne  thru  Parent-Teacher  Associa- 
tion. 

d.  Stress  practical. 


Principals 


a.  Com  shows;  singing  school;  com  show. 


b.  ]More  exercise;  care   of   teeth;  impor- 
tance outbuildings;  better  heating. 


c.  P-T   Assn.    formed;    get    acquainted 
with  parents;  interest  of  home  in  school. 


d.  Added   public   speaking   and   mental 
arithmetic;  stress  practical. 


After  all  the  most  suggestive  situation  in  the  matter  of  question 
number  4  lies  in  the  fact  that  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  groups 
failed  to  answer  the  question,  which  was  very  direct  and  plain. 

Question  5 — "Inspirat Ion ' ' 
Since  the  term  "inspiration"  plays  such  an  important  function  in 
this  entire  inquiry,  it  was  thought  advisable  to  attempt  to  determine 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  109 

to  what  degree,  if  any,  inspiration  functions  in  heller  leaching,  in  so 
far  as  it  may  be  possible  to  measure  such  an  abstract  conception. 
The  term  "inspiration"  is  widely  and  loosely  used.  Any  address 
or  performance  of  a  professional  nature  that  gives  pleasure,  is 
labelled  "inspiring."  If  ins])iralion  functions  as  a  factor  in  the 
training  of  teachers  there  must  be  some  dynamic  mental  and  spiritual 
force  which  urges  them  to  self  improvement  and  to  greater  service. 
In  the  last  analysis  inspiration  can  result  only  in  developing  certain 
professional  attitudes.  These  attitudes  will  assist  a  teacher  to  grow 
either  academically,  professionally,  or  in  skill. 
The  question  asked  these  groups  was: 

"If  the  last  Institute  was  inspiring,  slate  in  what  respects  or  in  what  way  it  was 
inspiring?" 

This  may  or  may  not  be  a  fair  question.  If,  however,  more  than 
50  per  cent  of  those  teachers  who  have  answered  the  questionnaires 
give  "inspiration"  as  the  highest  value  of  the  institute;  if  superin- 
tendents and  other  supervisory  officials  attach  the  same  high  value 
to  this  quality;  and  if  the  institute  programs  are  practically  50  per 
cent  inspiration,  then  it  seems  that  this  question  is  fair.  This 
question  was  answered  by  16  out  of  42  rural  teachers,  9  out  of  12 
principals;  16  out  of  25  high  school  teachers,  and  by  21  out  of  50 
grade  teachers,  or  a  total  of  62  out  of  129  represented  in  the  four 
groups.  Many  of  the  answers  are  interesting  but  not  illuminating. 
Invariably  the  term  is  defined  in  terms  of  itself,  or  in  terms  of 
certain  well  known  adjectives.  With  the  exception  of  several  specific 
references  to  several  lecturers  as  "inspiring  speakers"  or  "inspiring 
men,"  there  is  nothing  tangible  or  concrete  in  the  62  replies  to  give 
any  other  result  than  many  good  sermons  might  be  expected  to 
give  to  the  members  of  a  congregation.  There  is  nothing  to  show 
in  the  replies  that  this  same  "in.spiration"  did  not  exist  before  the 
institute.  The  terms  usually  used  to  explain  this  contribution  are 
"enthusiasm,"  "courage,"  "uplift,"  "zeal,"  "interest,"  "influence," 
"culture,"  "earnest,"  "responsibility  of  the  teacher,"  "inspire  to 
something  higher,"  etc.  A  few  examples  will  illustrate  how  teachers 
view  the  insjiirational  function  of  the  institute: 

"It  gave  encouragement  and  inspiration  rather  than  anything  definite." 
"More  interest  for  my  work — more  desire  for  better  results." 
"Dignity  of  service  and  responsibility;  need  for  teaching  our  pupils  to  become 
good  citizens;  inelTicicncy  of  myself." 

"Aroused  new  interest,  gave  new  thoughts." 


110 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 


"To  make  my  school  better,  to  get  my  pupils  interested,  develop  love  for  study, 
to  make  pupils  feel  that  I  am  their  friend." 

"Inspired  to  making  teaching  a  profession  and  to  earn  a  Normal  School  Certifi- 
cate." 

"Inspired  me  to  do  my  best  and  not  to  worrj';  find  out  what  is  useful  in  after  life." 

"Felt  that  the  standard  of  mj^  school  should  be  improved,  that  instruction  could 
be  better,  and  that  methods  were  not  the  best." 

"Greater  respect  for  the  profession." 

"Realization  of  the  aims  of  teaching." 

"Taught  me  to  work  more  zealously." 

"Made  me  feel  I  was  not  doing  all  I  could." 

"Effect  was  uplifting  and  helpful." 

The  judgment  seems  to  be  very  strong  that  the  institute  program 
does  develop  a  high  sense  of  professional  earnestness  and  mindedness. 
That  the  institute,  whether  thru  its  program  or  thru  its  group 
consciousness  and  stimulation,  does  center  thought  on  the  ideals  of 
teaching  service  there  can  be  no  doubt,  even  tho,  undoubtedly, 
many  of  the  expressions  concerning  the  inspirational  function  are 
conventional  and  more  or  less  the  result  of  habit.  This  function  of 
the  institute  is  no  different  from  that  of  any  other  convention  where 
suggestive  stimulation  plays  a  large  function. 

Question  6 — Improvement  of  Teachers'  Work  After  the  Institute 
Question  six — "Do  you  think  your  school  work  has  improved 
appreciably  since  the  last  County  Institute?"  was  a  direct  inquiry 
to  test  specifically  thru  the  person's  own  judgment  whether  the 
institute  functioned  in  self  improvement.  The  replies  are  no  doubt 
tinged  by  personal  bias.    The  replies  are  as  follows: 

Table  XXXII 

No.  in  group   Answering      Yes     No 


Graded  Group 

Ungraded  Group.  .  . 
Principals  Group .  . . 
High  School  Group . 


50 

30 

25 

5 

42 

30 

28 

2 

12 

5 

4 

1 

25 

15 

8 

7 

129 


80 


65     15 


Here  again  we  are  impressed  with  the  fact  that  47  did  not  answer 
the  question.  Of  those  answering  81  per  cent  believe  that  their  work 
did  improve  since  the  Institute.    We  would  expect  an  improvement 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  111 

without  the  institute.  Fifteen  or  19  per  cent  have  not  improved — ■ 
probably  also  to  be  expected.  One-half  of  the  high  school  group 
believe  they  have  not  shown  any  improvement. 

The  ne.xt  question  bears  only  indirectly  on  the  training  of  teachers 
in  service.  The  question  does,  however,  imply  that  the  institute 
programs  studied  did  not  provide  for  instruction  in  special  subjects. 

Question  7 — Special  Instruction 
Table  XXXIII — Need  for  Instruction  in  Special  Subjects? 


No.  in  Group 

No 
Answering 

Yes 

No 

50 

38 

37 

1 

42 

33 

32 

1 

12 

6 

5 

1 

25 

20 

19 

1 

Graded  Group 

Rural  Group 

Principals  Group 

High  School  Group 

129  97  93       4 

With  very  few  exceptions  those  who  believe  that  instruction  in 
special  subjects  is  necessary,  evince  the  fact  that  they  would  remain 
after  the  institute  session  to  attend  purely  voluntary  classes  in  those 
subjects  that  they  are  interested  in.  A  number  think  that  these 
subjects  can  be  done  in  demonstration  classes,  by  observation,  or  by 
round  table  conferences.  The  value  of  the  replies  to  this  question 
lies  in  the  fact  that  very  little  work  is  being  done  in  the  institutes 
in  the  special  subjects  like  manual  arts,  commercial  subjects,  drawing, 
music,  physical  education,  and  nature  study.  To  this  extent  there  is 
little  doubt  that  the  institute  program  does  not  function.  There  are 
institutes — notably  Chester  County — where  volunteer  after  or  pre- 
institute  classes  are  conducted  with  much  success. 

Thus  far  this  phase  of  the  functioning  of  the  institute  has  dealt 
with  the  attempt  to  determine  by  a  follow-up  method  the  extent  to 
which  the  program  has  actually  functioned  in  the  teaching  process 
after  the  dismissal  of  the  institute.  The  remaining  part  of  this 
phase  of  the  inquiry  concerns  itself  with  the  judgment  of  teachers 
as  to  the  "actual  contribution  of  the  institute"  to  the  teacher. 

Question  number  9  (See  Questionnaire  "b",  Appendix)  relates  to 
this  judgment.  It  was  answered  by  nearly  2500  teachers  in  12  coun- 
ties and  4  districts.  The  tabulation  of  these  judgments  follow  in 
Table  XXXIV. 


112  COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 

Table  XXXIV — Most  Valuable  Contribution  of  Institute 
(Teachers'  Judgment — 12  Counties,  4  Districts) 


Contribution 


First 

Second 

Third 

284 

180 

217 

703 

615 

317 

863 

474 

281 

40 

110 

117 

157 

479 

473 

220 

478 

589 

38 

125 

417 

2305 

2461 

2411 

Per  Ct. 

(First 
Value) 


Knowledge  Subject  Matter .  .  . 

Methods  of  Teaching 

Professional  Inspiration 

Conference  with  Co.  Supt 

Exchange  of  Ideas 

Discussion  of  School  Problems 
Social  Contacts  for  Teachers. . 


12.3 
30.5 
37.4 
1.7 
6.8 
9.5 
1.6 


It  is  seen  that  37  per  cent  of  those  answering  the  question  gave 
"professional  inspiration"  as  the  highest  or  most  valuable  contribu- 
tion; 30  per  cent  gave  "methods  of  teaching"  as  the  highest;  12  per 
cent  "knowledge  of  subject  matter"  as  the  highest;  while  only  21 
per  cent  gave  highest  contribution  to  all  the  remaining  five.  All 
the  other  included  "conference  with  the  county  superintendent," 
exchange  of  ideas,  "discussion  of  immediate  school  problems" 
and  "social  contacts  for  teachers."  Only  9  per  cent  assigned  the 
most  valuable  contribution  to  the  opportunity  to  "discuss  immediate 
school  problems,"  6  per  cent  to  the  chance  to  "exchange  ideas," 
about  2  per  cent  to  "social  contacts  for  teachers,"  in  spite  of  the  fact 
that  superintendents  usually  assign  much  value  to  the  social  features 
of  the  institute,  particularly  for  the  rural  teachers.  Much  of  this, 
of  course,  is  due  to  the  discontinuance  in  many  counties  of  the 
evening  sessions,  and  to  the  improved  transportation  facilities 
which  bring  teachers  to  and  from  the  institute  daily. 

It  is  not  the  part  of  this  study  to  question  the  validity  of  the 
judgment  of  those  who  attend  the  institute.  Certainly  some  weight 
must  be  given  to  this  judgment,  especially  of  so  many.  This  judg- 
ment indicates  a  preponderance  of  value  by  teachers  to  professional 
inspiration  as  the  highest  contribution,  with  methods  of  teaching  as 
second,  and  very  little  to  the  other  possible  and  desirable  con- 
tributions which  go  to  make  up  the  real  live  educational  movements, 
a  knowledge  of  which  stamp  a  teacher  as  professionally  minded. 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  113 

The  discussion  has  been  based  on  the  assumption  that  it  is 
necessary  to  train  teachers  in  service  and  that  it  will  probably  be 
necessary  to  do  so  for  many  years  to  come.  This  will  or  should  be 
true  in  every  profession  that  has  the  elements  of  improvement  within 
it.  Medicine,  law,  industry,  commerce  are  not  stagnant.  Science 
and  experience  will  always  work  changes  and  improvements.  The 
same  is  true  of  teaching.  The  successful  teacher  is  the  teacher  who 
wants  to  grow  professionally;  who  wants  to  keep  abreast  of  the 
times.  However,  in  Pennsylvania  we  are  confronted  with  a  more 
serious  problem  than  that  of  training  teachers  in  service.  Our 
problem  is  literally  to  train  them  while  in  service  to  meet  higher 
legal  requirements  for  the  service.  Our  program  calls  for  ade- 
quately qualified  teachers  on  a  basis  never  attempted  before  in  any 
but  one  or  two  states.  It  means  that  every  teacher  after  1927  must 
have  the  equivalent  of  a  two  year  Normal  School  Education.  After 
that  year  no  one  will  be  allowed  to  enter  the  profession  who  is  not 
at  least  a  Normal  School  graduate.  This  situation  from  now  on  is 
bound  to  have  an  effect  on  our  entire  County  Institute  situation. 
Our  teachers  by  that  time  will  be  trained  as  never  before.  They 
should  then  have  all  that  the  Institute  has  claimed  in  addition  to 
academic  and  professional  preparation.  What  after  that  time  will 
be  the  function  of  the  County  Institute?  Will  it  cease  to  be  an  agency 
designed  primarily  for  the  improvement  of  teachers  in  service,  or  will 
it  assume  a  new  function?  In  the  meantime,  can  it  really  contribute 
anything  to  the  legal  professional  requirements  of  teachers? 

Already  the  County  Superintendents  (March  1922)  have  held  a 
conference  to  consider  what  to  do  with  the  institute  in  order  to  fit  it 
in  with  the  new  comprehensive  plan  of  producing  better  qualified 
teachers  for  the  state.  In  the  light  of  the  present  study  radical 
changes  will  be  necessary  if  the  institute  is  to  contribute  any  real 
teacher  improvement. 

As  an  Agency  to  Influence  the  Public 

In  the  chapter  on  "Historical  Origins"  it  was  pointed  out  that  a 
very  urgent  reason  for  organizing  institutes  was  the  potential  intlu- 
ence  that  they  might  and  did  exert  on  a  public  dormant  and  apathetic 
and  often  hostile  to  public  education.  Because  of  a  lack  of  competing 
attractions  and  the  scarcity  of  diversions  from  such  meetings  the  pub- 
lic responded  in  its  attendance.  The  very  nature  of  the  programs 
offered  appealed  to  the  public.     The  newspapers  gave  much  pub- 


114  COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 

licity  to  the  institutes  and  focused  attention  on  educational  problems. 
The  evening  sessions  of  the  annual  institutes  were  events  of  great 
importance  to  the  community,  even  as  they  still  are  to-day  in  some 
parts  of  the  state.  Interest  on  education  was  naturally  centered 
around  the  annual  county  institute.  The  public  was  materially 
affected. 

Social  conditions  have  changed,  however.  The  ease  of  trans- 
portation and  communication,  the  opportunities  for  leisure  and 
recreation,  the  many  counter  attractions,  such  as  moving  pictures, 
cheap  theaters,  automobile  joy  rides,  dancing,  etc.,  have  almost 
wiped  out  the  evening  sessions.  In  1917,  eleven  institutes  had 
already  eliminated  the  evening  sessions,  while  in  45  counties  in 
1919,  eight  had  done  away  with  these  sessions  that  formerly  attracted 
the  public  and  created  an  educational  influence  with  it.  The  news- 
papers no  longer  give  the  same  amount  of  space  to  the  institute 
meetings,  except  in  a  very  few  places.  In  our  larger  county  seat 
towns,  the  press  hardly  comments  on  the  institute,  while  the  general 
public  seldom  in  the  larger  places  realizes  that  the  teachers  are  in 
town.  Educational  meetings  and  strictly  educational  instruction 
do  not  make  the  kind  of  copy  that  editors  want.  To-day  it  is  a 
remarkable  feat  of  the  publicity  expert  if  he  can  influence  the  press 
to  give  space  and  prominence  to  large  educational  conventions  like 
the  one  in  Pennsylvania  or  the  im^portant  mid-winter  sessions  of  the 
National  Department  of  Superintendence.  Where  these  large 
meetings  should  have  columns,  they  are  fortunate  if  they  secure 
inches.  It  is,  therefore,  no  wonder  that  the  county  institute  no 
longer  secures  the  publicity  it  formerly  had  and  thus  can  no  longer 
influence  the  public  as  it  did,  without  this  publicity.  A  good  illustra- 
tion of  this  is  the  falling  off  in  the  public's  attendance  at  teachers' 
institutes.  The  largest  number  of  spectators  present  at  all  the 
institutes  in  1876  was  about  34,000.  The  largest  number  of  specta- 
tors present  in  1917  was  27,000;  in  40  counties  in  1921  it  was  7900.25 
When  it  is  considered  that  there  were  less  than  one-third  as  many 
teachers  in  1876  as  there  were  in  1921,  and  that  the  population 
of  the  state  in  1876  was  a  little  more  than  three  and  one-half  million 
against  eight  million  seven  hundred  thousand  in  1920,  thus  naturally 
affording  a  larger  field  to  choose  an  attendance,  we  can  determine 
how  public  interest  in  the  Institute  has  declined,   and  with   this 

"  Unpublished  Data,  Department  Public  Instruction. 


COUNTY  teachers'  institutes  in  pknnsyi.vama  115 

decline  the  oiiportunity  of  the  institute  to  inllucnce  public  opinion. 
Furthermore,  there  were  nine  institutes  out  of  forty  whose  data  are 
available  for  1921  where  the  attendance  of  spectators  at  one  time 
was  fifty  or  less.  In  other  words  in  practically  one-fourth  of  the 
institutes,  there  were  hardly  any  spectators.  In  that  case  we  can 
reasonably  infer  that  the  newspapers  of  these  times  would  give  little 
publicity  to  the  proceedin'^^s. 

Another  reason  why  the  public  no  longer  attends  the  institute  is 
the  changing  nature  of  its  organization  from  the  general  session  type 
to  the  highly  departmentalized  type.  It  was  in  the  former  type  that 
the  professional  lecturer  told  his  jokes  and  stories  and  enthused  his 
audience  with  the  inspirational  address.  He  probably  does  the  same 
to-day,  but  the  public  doesn't  know  it.  The  public  thinks  that  all 
the  instruction  is  "technical"  and  dry  and  it  stays  away.  The 
public  attendance  at  our  county  institutes  is  ridiculously  low  if  we 
are  to  take  the  reports  of  the  county  superintendents  as  our  author- 
ity. The  public  can't  be  influenced  unless  they  attend  or  have  the 
opportunity  to  read  the  press  reports. 

It  is  unfortunate  that  the  institute  does  not  generally  create 
publicity  and  does  not  foster  that  healthy  sentiment  for  public 
education  that  it  formerly  did.  Teachers  attend  the  institute 
because  it  is  their  business  to  do  so  and  because  they  are  paid  for  it. 
The  public  feels  this.  It  is  doubtful  whether  it  is  conducive  to  good 
school  sentiment  to  have  the  public  feel  that  teachers  must  attend 
the  institute  as  a  "school"  for  teachers.  The  institute  is  a  purely 
business  proposition.  It  is  a  very  worth  while  aim  to  inlluence 
the  public.  Education  would  be  the  gainer  if  our  county  educational 
meetings  could  be  so  organized  and  so  programmed  that  they  would 
not  only  be  centers  of  attraction  for  the  general  public  but  centers  of 
educational  propaganda  as  well.  There  is  no  doubt  that  what  educa- 
tion needs  to-day  in  addition  to  the  adequately  qualified  teacher,  both 
academically  and  professionally,  is  a  sane  and  safe  public  sentiment 
for  the  public  schools.  If  the  institute  can  contribute  to  such  a  senti- 
ment, then  we  might  say  that  it  influences  the  public.  It  is  very 
doubtful  if  it  does  so  to-day.  There  is  no  direct  evidence  that  the 
institutes  do  so.  By  comparison  with  the  influence  of  voluntary  state 
associations,  whose  membership  frequently  includes  the  larger 
majority  of  the  teachers  of  the  state,  it  is  very  doubtful  whether 
institutes  do  influence  the  public.     In  many  cases  the  influence  of  a 


116  COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 

state  association  in  creating  influence  upon  the  State  Legislature  is 
small. 

In  fact,  it  seems  to  be  the  opinion  of  men  from  all  over  the  country, 
who  have  been  prominent  in  these  state  associations,  that  without  excep- 
tions, the  associations  exert  little  influence  in  legislative  matters}^ 

This,  of  course,  was  before  equal  suffrage  was  extended.  If, 
however,  a  powerful  state  association,  voluntarily  organized  cannot 
influence  the  legislative  committee,  how  can  teachers'  institutes 
appealing  to  a  larger  group  with  no  organized  publicity  means,  in- 
fluence the  general  public? 

Institutes  Have  Some  Benefits 

County  institutes  have  worthwhile  contributions.  The  rank  and 
file  of  the  teachers  have  shown  in  the  large  majority  of  cases  that 
institutes  have  been  helpful  to  them,  even  tho  they  are  not  in  a  posi- 
tion to  express  in  concrete  form  where  such  benefits  have  been. 
Authorities  outside  the  state  have  generally  granted  that  the  Penn- 
sylvania institutes  are  above  the  average  thruout  the  country.  Miss 
Mabel  Carney  says  that  the  Pennsylvania  Institutes  "on  the  whole 
are  as  good  as  any  I  have  ever  worked  in  and  I  have  done  work  of  this 
kind  in  about  35  states. "^^ 

But  in  evaluating  the  county  institute  relative  values  must  be 
considered.  That  every  county  institute  program  has  something  of 
value  in  it  cannot  be  doubted.  No  one  can  be  rash  enough  to  say 
that  the  entire  institute  as  it  is  to-day,  or  as  it  was  in  the  past  was 
useless.  The  Editor  of  the  "Journal  of  Education,"  Dr.  A.  E. 
Winship,  who  has  probably  appeared  on  more  institute  programs 
than  any  other  person  in  the  U.  S.  has  well  expressed  in  his  inimitable 
way  an  estimate  of  the  institute: 

I  felt  that  the  institutes  were  well  worth  while,  because  they  had  so  little 
professional  technique  and  so  much  that  was  giving  new  life  to  the  school  Hfe  of  a 
teacher.  It  is  impossible  to  teach  a  teacher  in  a  stray  hour  of  a  week's  institute, 
but  for  teachers  to  have  a  chance  to  enjoy  a  real  concert,  to  hear  a  lecturer,  even  if 
he  were  merely  a  platform  trickster,  and  to  enjoy  the  wholesome  sense  of  .  .  . 
brightly  and  spicily  put  across,  was  of  inestimable  value.-^ 

Continuing,  Dr.  Winship  says: 

^*  "Teachers'  Voluntary  Associations" — Alexander — p.  37. 
^^  Excerpt  from  answer  to  inquiry. 
**  Excerpt  from  answer  to  inquiry. 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  117 

It  is  vt'n,'  foolish  to  try  to  discount  anything  because  a  lot  of  it  is  nonsense  and 
the  best  of  it  nonsense  to  a  lot  of  teachers. 

Dr.  Winship  has  in  this  happy,  but  facetious  fashion,  summed  up  the 
values  of  that  type  of  county  institute  which  has  been  going  out  of 
existence  gradually  in  many  counties.  That  type  of  institute  was  a 
real  pleasure  for  most  teachers  because  it  did  not  require  much  effort 
on  the  part  of  teachers  to  listen. 

In  the  strictly  rural  counties,  and  there  are  many  such  counties 
in  Pennsylvania,  the  institute  means  much  to  the  teacher  who  has  not 
been  very  far  away  and  who  has  little  real  op])ortunity  for  social 
contacts  and  for  the  chance  to  exchange  ideas.  In  these  counties, 
the  institute  ought  to  be  so  organized  that  these  very  human  touches 
might  be  given  by  the  institute.  But  within  five  years  every  Penn- 
sylvania teacher  must  have  secured  the  equivalent  of  a  Normal 
School  training.  It  is  only  fair  to  suppose  that  by  that  time  every 
teacher  in  this  state  will  have  had  the  opportunity  to  attend  a  sum- 
mer school  or  a  Normal  School,  where  these  human  contacts  will 
likewise  be  developed  and  cultivated. 

A  unique  value  of  the  institute  has  been  its  power  to  organize  and 
unify  the  teachers  back  of  movements  for  improving  the  teachers' 
status.  Institutes  have  acted  in  their  corporate  capacities  as  units 
of  the  Pennsylvania  State  Educational  Association,  in  fact,  under  the 
new  organization  of  the  Association,  they  are  regarded  as  such. 
This  power  must  be  preserved,  cither  thru  the  county  institute  or 
voluntary  associations. 

The  institute  has  also  served,  to  a  certain  extent,  in  developing 
certain  professional  ideals  among  teachers.  The  chief  difliculty  has 
been  that  there  has  been  too  much  insistence  on  this  ty])e  of  pro- 
fessional inspiration  "instruction."  It  is  this  that  has  brought  re- 
proach on  the  institute.  The  institute  has  not  been  meeting  the  school 
room  needs  of  teachers,  at  any  rate,  not  the  needs  imposed  upon 
teachers  to-day. 

Then,  too,  the  institute  has  acquainted  many  teachers  with 
some  notable  men  and  women  not  only  in  the  field  of  education,  but 
in  various  walks  of  public  life.  The  institute  platform  has  been  the 
attraction,  as  it  were,  for  many  persons  of  this  type.  While  their 
message  has  not  always  been  of  the  strictly  pedagogical  kind,  the 
mere  presence  of  these  men  and  women  in  the  midst  of  a  group  of 
teachers   assembled   in   county   institute,    has   lent   dignity   to   the 


118  COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 

profession  and  has  centered  for   the   time  being  publicity  on   the 
schools.    This  feature  of  the  institute  has  been  valuable. 

While  many  counts  have  been  charged  up  to  the  inefl5ciency  of 
the  institute,  much  of  it  is  due  possibly  to  a  too  strict  adherence  to 
tradition,  and  to  the  lack  of  expert  direction  in  the  management  of 
the  entire  institute  program  in  Pennsylvania.  But  in  spite  of  the 
deficiencies  pointed  out,  there  is  a  good  deal  of  truth  in  what  Com- 
missioner Payson  Smith  of  Mass.  has  said:  "In  general,  it  has 
seemed  to  me  that  the  high  professional  zeal  of  the  teaching  profes- 
sion in  Pennsylvania  must  be  due  in  a  large  measure  to  the  insti- 
tutes."29 

29  Smith,  Payson,  Extract  from  answer  to  writer's  inquiry. 


CHAPTER  VI 
Finances  of  the  Institute 

One  of  the  most  essential  principles  of  modern  efficiency  is 
the  cost  of  an  enterprise,  and  this  cost  in  relation  to  the  product 
turned  out.  In  education  this  principle  is  well  known,  for  we  are  con- 
stantly asking  how  much  schools  are  costing,  and  we  are  establishing 
standards  of  costs.  We  go  further  than  this — we  are  actually  trying 
to  measure  the  products  of  the  school  by  the  use  of  standardized 
measurements.  The  survey  has  familiarized  us  with  unit  costs. 
We  are  comparing  the  efficiency  of  a  school  system  by  the  amount  of 
money  put  into  the  system  and  its  relation  to  the  product.  Hence, 
we  can  reasonably  say  that  a  school  system  that  has  a  high  per 
capita  expenditure  either  in  terms  of  population  or  in  terms  of  average 
daily  attendance,  or  total  enrollment,  should,  all  other  conditions 
being  favorable,  have  a  high  degree  of  efficiency.  If  expert  examina- 
tion shows  such  a  system  inefficient,  then  an  examination  of  costs  or 
the  finances  of  the  system  will  necessarily  show  waste,  poor  organiza- 
tion, or  inefficient  teaching.  Similarly,  if  a  school  system  is  turning 
out  a  poor  product,  the  very  first  procedure  is  to  examine  the  amount 
of  money  spent  on  the  system.  This  investigation  will  at  once  open 
up  a  variety  of  financial  questions — such  as  assessments,  tax  rates, 
ability  to  support  schools,  indebtedness,  etc. 

Likewise,  a  study  of  the  finances  of  teachers'  institutes  in  the 
counties  in  Pennsylvania  suggests  a  careful  consideration  of  the  cost 
and  the  product;  the  ability  of  some  counties  to  support  efficient 
institutes;  the  wide  range  of  per  capita  expenditures;  the  wide  range 
of  enrollment  fees;  and  the  further  wide  range  of  expenditures  on 
lectures,  entertainment,  and  instructors.  Above  all  comes  the 
eternal  question  so  frequently  asked,  ""Arc  Institutes  costing  too 
much?"  Is  the  money  invested  in  the  Pennsylvania  County  and 
District  Institutes  productive  of  the  results  expected  from  the 
investment?  Do  the  ends  attained  justify  the  expense  and  satisfy 
the  purpose  of  the  institute?  Is  the  criticism  true  that  "some 
institutes  probably  do  not  fulfill  their  functions,  and  do  not  pay 
for  the  expense  of  time  and  energy  that  goes  into  them?"^ 

>  Belts,  "The  County  Institute,"  Schoolmen's  Week  Proceedings,  University  of 
Penna.   1910.  p.  210. 

119 


120  COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 

The  data  for  this  chapter  are  taken  primarily  from  the  state 
report  of  the  Department  of  Public  Instruction  of  Pennsylvania  for 
1918,2  Well  kept  records  are  essential  to  any  study  of  costs  and 
efficiency.  Reliability  of  the  reports  of  the  county  superintendents 
on  their  county  institutes  is  taken  for  granted.  The  only  possible 
exception  that  can  be  taken  to  their  reports  is  a  source  of  error 
that  may  creep  in  because  the  receipts  of  the  institute  are  not  very 
carefully  diflFerentiated  among  monies  received  from  lectures  and 
entertainments.  These  two  items  are  frequently  combined.  How- 
ever, since  only  $16,000  were  received  in  the  county  institutes  from 
these  two  sources,  any  error  that  may  arise  is  very  slight. 

Sources  of  Revenue 

The  sources  of  revenue  of  the  county  and  district  institutes  are 
from  the  following  items:  enrollment  fees  charged  teachers,  appro- 
priations from  the  counties,  admissions  charged  to  evening  entertain- 
ments and  lectures.  An  additional  source  of  revenue  for  the  district 
institutes  is  the  school  board  which  may  contribute  to  the  support  of 
the  district  institute  if  the  fees  of  teachers  and  county  aid  are  not 
sufficient. 

The  chief  source  of  support  is  the  enrollment  fee  charged  teachers. 
In  all  but  two  counties,  this  fee  admits  not  only  to  the  day  sessions, 
but  the  night  sessions  as  well.  This  fee  varied  in  1917  among  the 
sixty-six  counties  from  $1  00  to  $3.00.  In  one  county  the  fee  was 
in  1917  $1.00;  in  2,  $1.25;  in  10,  $1.50;  in  3,  $1.75;  in  13,  $2.00; 
11,  $2.25;  15,  $2.50;  in  11,  $3.00.  The  median  fee  is  from  $2.00  to 
$2.25.  In  46  district  institutes  held  in  1917,  in  which  49  districts 
participated,  the  fee  varied  from  nothing  to  $6.50.  In  11  districts 
there  was  no  fee;  in  1  it  was  $1.00;  in  3,  $1.50;  in  9,  $2.00;  in  3, 
$2.25;  in  5,  $2.50;  in  5,  $3.00;  in  4,  $4.00;  in  5,  $5.00;  in  1,  $5.00  to 
$6.50.  In  40  counties  for  which  fees  are  known  for  1920  the  fees 
are  as  follows:  1  at  $1.25;  2  at  $1.50;  2  at  $1.75;  5  at  $2.00;  2  at 
$2.25;  9  at  $2.50;  1  at  $2.75;  10  at  $3.00;  4  at  $3.50;  1  at  $3.75; 
3  at  $4.00.  The  median  fee  in  these  counties  is  $2.50  to  $2.75  against 
$2.00  to  $2.25  two  years  before.  The  missing  counties  would  not 
affect  this  median.  This  is  an  indication  that  the  enrollment  fees 
have  increased  a  little  since  1917.  The  county  that  had  an  enroll- 
ment fee  of  $1.25  is  Centre,  while  Adams,  Franklin  and  Potter  had 
$4.00  fees. 

2  No  published  financial  data  on  Pa.  Institutes  since  191S.  Many  Institutes 
were  not  held  in  1918  on  account  of  Influenza. 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  121 

The  enrollment  fee  is  an  important  consideration  in  determining 
the  ability  of  a  particular  county  to  finance  an  institute  that  has 
instructors  of  a  type  that  demand  high  pay.  It  is  evident  that  the 
fee  should  ordinarily  vary  inversely  as  the  number  of  teachers  in  a 
county,  i.  e.,  the  smaller  the  number  of  teachers,  the  higher  the  fee, 
and  vice  versa,  the  larger  the  number  of  teachers,  the  smaller  the 
fee.  This,  however,  is  better  theory  than  practice  as  a  study  of  en- 
rollment fees  in  the  small  counties  will  show.  Thus  the  five  counties 
that  report  the  smallest  number  of  teachers  and  smallest  total  expendi- 
tures charge  only  the  median  fee — three,  $2.00;  and  two,  $2.50. 
These  same  counties  report  payments  to  instructors  of  S105  to  $270. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  11  counties  that  have  an  enrollment  fee  of 
$3.00  have  a  much  larger  number  of  teachers  than  the  five  counties 
that  report  the  smallest  total  expenditures.  Five  of  these  counties 
have  an  average  of  520  teachers,  a  number  that  is  larger  by  141  than 
all  the  five  small  counties  compared  The  other  si.x  counties  that 
have  a  three  dollar  fee  have  an  average  number  of  teachers  of  213. 

A  careful  study  of  enrollment  fees  and  the  receipts  from  teachers 
for  supporting  the  county  institute  reveals  glaringly  the  inequality 
of  opportunity  for  teachers  thru  their  institutes.  This  is  especially 
true  if  the  institute  is  to  be  an  agency  that  will  in  some  way  or  other 
improve  teachers  in  service.  The  counties  already  referred  to  are 
probably  charging  fees  that  are  large  enough  for  that  county,  but 
not  nearly  large  enough  to  secure  the  opportunities  that  these  very 
counties  should  have  in  their  institutes.  It  is  the  old  story  of  an 
inequality  of  distribution  of  aid.  The  counties  that  have  a  large 
number  of  teachers  can  keep  down  the  enrollment  fee  and  still  have 
ample  support.  For  example:  There  are  nine  counties — Allegheny, 
Berks,  Cambria,  Chester,  Fayette,  Lancaster,  Luzerne,  Schuylkill 
and  York — each  of  which  receives  from  its  teachers  as  much  or  more 
than  Union,  Snyder,  Juniata,  and  Perry  combined.  These  received 
from  their  teachers  in  all  $1,275.  There  are  eight  other  counties, 
each  of  which  collects  from  its  teachers  within  $100  to  $150  as 
much  as  these  four  combined.  These  eight  counties  had  a  surplus  of 
$3,868,  an  amount  which  is  nearly  three  times  as  large  as  the  amount 
spent  on  instructors  by  Union,  Snyder,  Juniata,  and  Perry,  and 
nearly  four  times  as  large  as  that  paid  by  Cameron,  Forest,  Fulton, 
Montour,  and  Pike  ($1,013),  with  an  enrollment  of  379  teachers. 
There  is  another  group  of  counties — Pike,  Wayne,  and  Monroe — 
which  collects  from  their  teachers  less  than  one  half  as  much  as 


122  COUNTY  teachers'  institutes  in  PENNSYLVANIA 

Luzerne,  contiguous  to  one  of  the  three,  and  very  near  the  other 
two.  The  same  contrast  is  seen  among  a  group  of  counties  in  the 
western  part  of  the  state — Elk,  Cameron,  and  Forest — which  com- 
bined collect  from  their  teachers  (375),  fees  to  the  extent  of  S796,  an 
amount  $36  less  than  Venango's  enrollment  fees. 

These  contrasts  in  the  abilities  of  certain  counties  to  secure 
workable  funds  for  institutes  is  a  fundamental  problem.  It  is  as 
striking  as  the  problem  of  securing  adequate  revenue  to  support 
schools  in  districts  that  can  the  least  afford  to  do  so.  The  remedy 
may  lie  in  one  or  two  of  several  propositions,  viz.,  larger  fees,  larger 
county  appropriations,  state  aid,  or  regional  institutes. 

The  city,  borough,  and  township  institutes  ofifer  less  contrast  in 
the  matter  of  ability  to  support  institutes  than  the  counties.  There 
are  in  Pennsylvania  130  districts  that  may  hold  separate  institutes, 
but  of  this  number  only  49  did  so,  the  remaining  81  districts  com- 
bined with  their  own  county.  In  1917,  6607  teachers  attended  the 
district  institutes.  The  average  fee  was  $2.00,  as  was  the  median 
fee.  The  total  receipts  of  these  institutes  was  $27,452.  Of  this  sum 
the  teachers  paid  $12,102;  the  county,  $7,086,  evening  sessions, 
$659,  all  other  sources — in  most  cases  contributions  from  school 
boards — $3,075.  A  balance  of  over  $4,000  from  the  year  before  made 
up  the  year's  resources. 

The  total  receipts  of  the  county  institutes  in  1917-18  was  $94,614;* 
of  the  district  institutes,  $27,452,  making  a  grand  total  of  $122,066. 
Of  this  amount  $62,216  was  in  teachers'  enrollment  fees  (850,104 
county;  $12,102  districts).  Thus  it  is  evident  that  51  per  cent  of 
the  resources  of  the  institutes  was  from  teachers'  fees.  Evening 
lectures  brought  in  $10,175  (County,  810,641;  Districts,  $134). 
Evening  entertainments  added  $6,387  (County  $5,762;  Districts, 
$625).  Evening  sessions  were,  therefore,  responsible  for  $17,162  of 
the  year's  resources,  or  18  per  cent  of  the  county  institute  resources. 

Fifteen  per  cent  of  the  institutes'  resources  came  from  the  county 
treasuries.  According  to  law,  the  institute  receives  assistance  from 
the  county  at  the  rate  of  333^^  cents  a  day  per  teacher,  provided 
the  total  amount  does  not  exceed  $200.  Fifty-nine  counties  con- 
tribute $200  each  to  the  county  institute;  the  other  seven  counties 
contribute  am.ounts  varying  from  $113  to  Pike  to  $191  to  Juniata. 

'  Forty  counties'  receipts  in  1921-22  were  $70,250;  same  1917-18,  $58,715.  (From 
unpublished  and  partial  data.) 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  123 

Thus  Allegheny  with  1706  teachers  receives  county  aid  of  $200,  while 
Pike  with  68  teachers  receives  SI  13.  Allegheny  actually  receives  aid 
at  the  rate  of  12^  cents  a  day  per  teacher,  while  Pike  receives  the 
full  allowance,  or  33},^  cents  per  day  per  teacher.  This  method 
of  ai^propriating  money  to  the  county  institute  was  first  devised  in 
the  Act  of  1867,  and  reincorporated  with  scarcely  any  essential 
change  in  the  Act  of  1911.  The  Act  of  1887  made  it  permissible  for 
all  districts  with  75  or  more  teachers  to  hold  separate  institutes. 
This  was  changed  in  1895  to  a  minimum  of  50  teachers,  still  further 
reduced  to  40  in  the  Act  of  1911.  Under  this  permission  forty-three 
separate  institutes  were  held  in  1917-18.  These  se])arate  institutes 
drew  from  the  county  treasuries  amounts  varying  from  Sl()3  to 
S200.  The  43  separate  institutes  drew  from  the  county  treasuries  the 
grand  total  of  $7,086,  while  the  66  county  institutes  w^erc  aided  to  the 
amount  of  $12,937.  Here  again  we  must  note  that  an  inequality 
of  a  distribution  of  aid  exists.  The  districts  that  hold  separate 
institutes  have  20  per  cent  of  the  teachers  attending  institutes, 
but  they  receive  35  per  cent  of  money  contributed  by  the  counties. 
The  66  counties  have  80  per  cent  of  the  teachers,  but  they  receive 
only  65  per  cent  of  the  aid  given  by  the  counties 

EXPENDITURES  OF  THE  INSTITUTES 

An  analysis  of  the  large  items  of  expenditures  in  the  county  and 
district  institutes  reveals  the  same  general  and  wide  variation  as  is  to 
be  expected  from  the  varying  facilities  of  the  counties  and  districts. 
The  total  expenditures  of  the  66  counties  were  $83,209;^  of  the  49 
districts  holding  separate  institutes,  $24,144,  or  a  grand  total  of 
$107,353  against  receipts  of  $122,066.  Eight  counties  reported  total 
deficits  of  $776.59,  while  four  districts  reported  deficits  of  $546. 
The  county  deficits  ranged  from  $6.00  to  $72,  while  the  district 
deficits  ranged  from  $2.33  to  $295. 

Character  of  Expenditure 

The  main  and  largest  items  of  expenditures  in  their  orders  were, 
instructors,  evening  entertainment,  evening  lectures,  rent,  printing, 
and  all  others.  The  following  table  gives  the  character  of  expendi- 
tures, amount  under  each,  and  percentage  of  total  expenditures  of  both 
the  county  and  district  institutes. 

*  Forty  counties  in  1921-22  total  expenditures  were  $57,518  (published  data). 
Same  counties  in  191 7-1 S  total  expenditures  were  $50,35.?. 


124 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 
Table  XXXV — Character  of  Expenditctres — 1917-18 


Instnict- 
ors 

Ev'g  Lec- 
tures 

Ev'g    En- 
tertain- 
ment 

Rent 

Print- 
ing 

Other 

Total 

County 

35331 

42 
16767 

70 

6959 

8 
3318 

14 

15480 

19 
1041 

4 

6115 

7 
271 

1 

4567 

5 
438 

2 

14755 

18 
2305 

9 

83209 

County  per  cent. 
Total  Expenditures.  .  .  . 
District 

100 
24144 

District  Per  Cent 

Total  Expenditures.  . . . 

100 

Total 

$52098 
48.6 

10277 
9.4 

16521 
15.3 

6386 
6. 

5005 
5. 

17060 
16 

107353 

Total  Per  Cent 

100 

From  the  above  distribution  of  expenditures  it  is  very  evident  that 
while  the  district  institutes  spent  70  per  cent  of  their  total  expendi- 
tures on  instructors,  the  county  institutes  spent  only  42  per  cent 
on  the  same  item.  While  districts  spent  18  per  cent  on  evening 
lectures  and  entertainment,  the  counties  used  27  per  cent  for  this 
same  purpose.  This  variation,  however,  may  be  justified  from  the 
fact  that  the  counties  derive  18  per  cent  of  their  total  receipts  from 
evening  sessions,  while  they  consume  16  per  cent  of  their  total 
receipts  on  this  same  item.  The  receipts  of  the  district  institutes 
from  evening  lectures  and  entertainments  is  a  negligible  quantity, 
tho  18  per  cent  of  their  outlay  is  for  these  two  items.  Forty-eight  and 
six  tenths  per  cent  of  the  outlays  of  the  109  Institutes  in  Pennsylvania 
in  1917-18  was  for  the  fees  of  instructors  in  the  day  sessions.^ 

Because  complete  data  are  not  available  at  present  (Mar.  1,  1922), 
it  is  impossible  to  make  a  study  of  expenditures  since  1917-18. 
However,  unpublished  data  give  valuable  information  bearing  on 
this  phase.  Forty  counties  expended  in  1921-22  on  Institutes  the 
grand  total  of  $57,518;  these  same  counties  spent  in  1917-18, 
$50,353.  In  1921-22  these  40  counties  spent  $20,854  for  instruction, 
while  the  same  counties  spent  in  1917-18,  $19,498.  It  is  thus  seen 
that  in  spite  of  increasing  cost  of  all  Institute  talent,  etc.,  these  40 
counties  actually  spent  only  $7,165  more  on  all  items  and  $1,356 
more  for  instructors.     A  further  analysis  shows  that  25  counties 

'  In  1921-22  in  40  counties  36.5  per  cent  of  total  expenditures  was  for  instruction. 
In  1917-18  in  same  counties  38.7  per  cent  of  total  expenditures  was  for  instruction. 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 


125 


spent  more  and  15  less  than  in  1917-18,  while  24  spent  more  and  16 
less  for  instructors.  This  situation,  no  doubt,  is  accounted  for  by 
the  fact  that  64  representatives  from  the  Department  visited  35  of 
these  40  counties.  These  64  representatives,  delivering  on  an  average 
of  two  addresses  each  per  day,  and  many  present  more  than  one 
day,  helped  to  reduce  instructional  expense,  altho  it  cannot  be 
accurately  said  how  much. 

-I mount  Paid  Day  Instructors 
The  following  table  will  indicate  the  range  of  total  amounts  e.x- 
pended  on  instructors  in  the  several  counties  and  districts. 

Table  XXXVI — Range  of  Amounts  Spent  on  Instruction* 


Under 
$200 

200 
to 
300 

300 
to 
400 

400 
to 
500 

500 
to 
600 

10 

9 

23 

600 
to 
700 

700 
to 

800 

800 
to 
900 

900 

to 

1000 

lOOf) 

to 

1100 

1100 

to 

1200 

No.  Counties 

.3 
5 

6 
12 

6 
16 

17 

9 

23 

11 

7 
18 

3 

2 
5 

2 

3 
8 

2 

1 
3 

1 

3 

1 

Per  Cent  Counties 

Districts 

2 

5 

Per  Cent  Districts 

Fifty-seven  per  cent  of  the  counties  spent  from  $300  to  S600  on 
instructors,  while  15  per  cent  spent  less  than  $300.  The  range 
among  the  counties  is  from  $105  to  $1,225.  The  range  among  the 
districts  is  from  $85  to  $820.  Whether  county  institutes  can  be  of 
the  same  uniform  standard  on  such  a  basis  of  wide  variation  of 
outlays  for  the  instructional  work  of  the  institute  is  a  serious  problem 
for  consideration.  The  further  analysis  of  the  programs  presented, 
instructors  employed  by  the  several  institutes  will  shed  more  light 
on  this  phase  of  the  institutes. 

Instructors^  Fees 
From  hitherto  unavailable  and  unpublished  data,  it  is  possible  to 
distribute  the  fees  or  honorariums  paid  Institute  instructors  in  the 
40  county  institutes,  as  shown  in  Table  XXXVII. 
The  median  fee  paid  was  $169.  The  range  of  the  first  quartile  was 
$0-$99;  second  S100-$169;  third  $170-$205;  fourth  S205-$325.  The 
vast  majority  of  these  fees  are  for  5  days'  services;  25  per  cent  are 
for  services  from  one  to  three  days. 

•  In  40  counties  1921-22  expenditures  for  Instruction  were  $20,854  (unpublished 
daU). 

In  same  counties  1917-18  expenditures  for  instruction  were  $19,498. 


126  COUNTY  teachers'  institutes  in  PENNSYLVANIA 

Table  XXXVII — Distribution  Instructors'  Fees — 1921-22^ 


Amount  Paid 

No. 

$0-$24 

5 

25-49 

10 

50-74 

5 

75-99 

15 

100-124 

11 

125-149 

16 

150-174 

27 

Amount  Paid 

No. 

$175-$199 

13 

200-224 

16 

225-249 

7 

250-274 

5 

275-299 

0 

300-324 

3 

325- 

2 

The  entire  amount  spent  on  instruction  in  these  40  counties  in 
1921-22  was  $20,854.  It  is  rather  surprising  and  very  significant 
that  $9,000  or  43  per  cent  of  the  total  amount  expended  for  instruc- 
tion was  paid  to  20  persons;  18  of  these  were  from  without  the  state. 
The  fee  for  these  20  instructors  for  the  5  days'  service  ranged  from 
$150  to  $325,  the  average  being  $210  a  week.  There  were  in  all  135 
fees  paid  for  instruction. 

While  these  data  are  not  easily  available  for  the  year  1917-18, 
it  is  quite  probable  that  the  ratio  would  be  very  little  different. 

Evening  Session  Expenditures 

A  table  of  distribution  of  expenditures  for  evening  lectures  and 
entertainments  would  show  the  same  wide  variations  which  indicates, 
one  would  suppose,  wide  variation  in  equality.  The  total  receipts 
from  the  evening  sessions  in  1917-18  were  $17,162,  while  the  cost  of 
the  talent  for  these  sessions  in  County  Institutes  was  $26,798,  a  loss 
of  $9,636.  Unpublished  data  from  40  County  Superintendents' 
financial  reports  of  the  Institute  in  1921-22  present  an  interesting 
financial  study  in  the  matter  of  the  profitableness  of  evening  enter- 
tainments. Twenty-five  (25)  counties  report  a  loss  on  evening 
entertainments  ranging  from  $84  to  $819,  or  a  total  loss  of  $5,910, 
while  only  three  (3)  counties  report  a  net  gain  from  evening  enter- 
tainments of  $969.  Twelve  of  these  counties  had  no  evening 
entertainments. 

This,  naturally,  raises  the  question  whether  or  not  evening  enter- 
tainments pay  financially.  Certainly,  the  public  does  not  seem  to 
contribute  sufficiently  to  make  evening  entertainments  self-support- 
ing. This  conclusion,  however,  cannot  be  substantiated  until  we 
know  just  what  part  of  the  enrollment  fee  is  meant  for  evening 
lectures  and  entertainment.    It  is  true,  however,  that  15.5  per  cent  of 

'  Unpublished  data  and  reports  Dept.  of  Public  Instruction. 


COUNTY  TEACHERS    INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 


127 


the  entire  enrollment  fees  is  devoted  towards  making  up  the  deficit 
and  thus  decreases  the  assets  for  instruction. 

Table  XXXXIII — Character  Exi'exditures — County — Period  l')ll-17 


Instruct- 
ors 

FA-g. 
Lect. 

Kvg. 
Ent. 

Rent 

Print- 
ing 

Other 

Total 

1911-12 

1917-18 

527,709 

35,.S31 

.37.7 

42.4 

10574 

6959 

14.4 

8.4 

12810 

1.S480 

17.4 

18.6 

6673 

6115 

9.1 

7.3 

3596 
4567 

5. 
5,5 

12000 

14755 

16.3 

17.7 

73362 
83209 

Percent  1911-12 

Percent  1917-18 

The  above  table  is  self  explanatory.  There  has  been  an  increase  both 
in  the  amount  spent  on  instruction  and  on  the  evening  lectures  and 
entertainments,  but  less  on  evening  lectures  and  more  on  enter- 
tainments. 

From  fragmentary  data  for  1920-21,  there  was  spent  on  instructors 
and  their  expenses  the  sum  of  S46,11.S  against  835,331  in  1917-18; 
and  $23,449  for  evening  lectures  and  entertainments,  a  little  more 
than  in  1917-18,  and  about  the  same  as  in  1911-12.  In  40  counties 
in  1921-22,  only  36.2  per  cent  of  the  total  expenditures  went  for 
instructors. 

To  emphasize  this  wide  variation  further  the  following  tables  of 
Per  Capita  Expenditures  on  instructors,  total  expenditures,  in  the 
counties  and  districts  are  offered;  also  the  distribution  of  total 
expenditures,  number  of  teachers  attending  in  the  several  counties. 
A  similar  table  for  the  entire  state  would  show  similar  wide  variations. 

Table  XXXIX  shows  that  the  average  per  capita  expenditure 
for  all  items  is  nearly  five  times  as  large  in  the  five  smallest  counties 
as  it  is  in  the  five  largest  counties.  It  also  shows  that  the  five  smallest 
counties  spend  81  per  cent  as  much  for  evening  lectures  and  enter- 
tainment as  they  do  for  instructors. 

A  table  of  per  capita  costs  for  entire  institute  and  for  instructor 
outlays  in  the  district  institutes  shows  the  same  wide  variation  as 
among  the  counties.  Table  XLI  contrasting  per  capita  expendi- 
tures between  the  live  largest  cities  and  five  smallest  of  that  group 
shows  this  variation. 

The  organization  of  an  institute  in  counties  that  enroll  from 
200  to  500  teachers  will  differ  very  little  in  so  far  as  number  of 
instructors  is  concerned,     .'^ince  most  of  the  institutes  in  counties 


128 


COUNTY  TEACHERS    INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 


Table  XXXIX — Per  Capita  (TSachers)  Expenditures 


No. 
Teachers 

Total 

Instructors 

Evening     Lect. 
-Entertainment 

Five    Largest    Counties 
(No.  Teachers) 

6267 

1.76 

.74 

Allegheny 

1706 
1403 
1139 
1160 
859 

.92 
2.00 
2.06 
2.27 
1.62 

.44 

.69 

.91 

1.62 

1.36 

Luzerne 

43 

SchuylkiU 

Westmoreland 

70 

Washington 

Five  Smallest  Counties 

379 

8.14 

2.68 

2.19 

Cameron 

52 
92 

84 
83 
68 

12.00 
5.00 
9.00 

11.50 
4.00 

5.00 
1.14 
3.21 
3.00 
2.00 

7  32 

Forest 

2  19 

Fulton 

2  07 

Montour 

Pike* 

0 

71 

*Pike  spent  the  smallest  amount  among  county  institutes  for  instructors,  but  the 
per  capita  for  this  item  was  more  than  twice  that  of  Fayette  Co.  which  spent  the 
largest  amount,  $1225,  on  instructors.  Such  oddities  not  only  illustrate  the  financial 
straits  that  these  counties  find  themselves  in,  but  mark  their  county  superintendents 
as  financial  geniuses  for  being  able  to  finance  any  institute  at  all. 

of  this  size  have  not  more  than  four  departments,  it  is  evident  that 
the  cost  of  the  institute  in  such  counties  should  vary  only  little. 
The  opposite,  however,  is  true.  Counties  of  this  size  (200  to  500 
teachers)  predominate  in  Pennsylvania.  Thirty-six  counties,  or  54 
per  cent  of  the  entire  number,  enroll  from  200  to  500  teachers  at 
their  institutes.  The  range  of  expenditures  in  these  36  counties  is 
from  $600  to  $1,900.     Greene  County  with  263  teachers  enrolled 

Table  XL — Distribution  of  Atteitoance  in  County  and  District  Institutes 

Number  Attending 


Under 

100 

100-200 

20O-30C 

300-400 

400-500 

500-600 

600-700 

700-800 

County 
District 

5 
17 

8 
13 

12 
4 

12 

5 

12 
1 

5 

3 
1 

3 

800-900 

900-1000 

1000-1100 

1100-120( 

) 1200-1300 

1400-1500 

1700-1800 

County 

2 

0 

0 

2 

0 

1 

1 

COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  129 

Table  XLI — Per  Capita  Expenditures  Districts 


No.  Teachers 

Total  Ex. 

Instructors 

650 

1.68 

.80 

418 

1.70 

1.00 

366 

4.00 

1.10 

364 

2.50 

342 

2.76 

2.20 

+4 

9.00 

5.00 

50 

7.00 

6.50 

54 

9.00 

4.00 

55 

5.00 

5.00 

58 

5.00 

4.92 

Five  Largest  Districts 

Scranton 

Reading 

Johnstown 

Erie 

Harrisburg 

Five  Smallest  Districts 

Windegrift 

Titusville 

Punxsutaw-ney.  . 

Mt.  Carmel 

Redstone 


reports  total  expenditures  of  $1,900.  This  same  county  reports  the 
next  to  the  largest  amount  paid  to  instructors — $684 — in  this  large 
group  of  counties.  Standardized  institutes  in  these  counties  should 
spend  nearly  the  same  amount  of  money,  but  the  opposite  is  true. 
One  county  spends  under  $700;  4  report  $800;  5,  $900;  5,  $1,000; 
4,  $1,100;  3,  $1,200;  6,  $1,300;  5,  $1,400;  1,  $1,500;  1,  $1,800;  1, 
$1,900.     (Expenditures  reported  to  nearest  hundreds,  only.) 

The  logical  conclusion  from  this  great  variation  in  expenditures 
is  inevitable.  Either  the  institutes  differ  widely  in  their  efficiency, 
or  some  county  superintendents  are  able  to  secure  their  instructors 
and  other  talent  at  greatly  reduced  rates. 

THE  COST  OF  THE  INSTITUTE 

Having  analyzed  the  resources  and  the  e.xpenditures  of  the 
organization  known  as  the  institute,  there  reamins  the  consideration 
of  the  real  cost  of  the  enterprise.  The  cost  of  the  institutes  in 
Pennsylvania  is  made  up  from  three  items — the  compensation  of 
teachers  for  attending  the  institute;  the  contribution  of  the  county 
treasuries  to  its  support,  and  the  admission  fees  paid  by  the  public 
to  the  evening  lectures  and  entertainments.  The  first  of  these  three 
items  is  the  most  weighty.  'Under  the  Act  of  1887  teachers  were  for 
the  first  time  compelled  to  be  paid  the  sum  of  two  dollars  a  day  for 
their  attendance  at  the  institute;  in  the  law  of  1911  this  was  in- 
creased to  three  dollars  a  day;  the  legislature  of  1919  increased  this 
allowance  to  four  dollars  a  day.  ' 


130  COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 

The  following  table  of  the  cost  of  the  institute  for  the  year  ending 
June  30,  1918,  sums  up  the  cost: 

(1)  Compensation  to  teachers,  exclusive  (Philadelphia  and  Pittsburgh)       $  544,496 
27617  at  county  institutes  at  $15  week 

6416  at  city,  boro.  and  township  $15  week 
34031  at  $15  a  week  $544,496 

(2)  Paid  out  of  County  Treasuries  to  all  institutes  $20,024.32 
To  Co.  Institutes  $12,937 .  33 

To  Dist.  Institutes  7,086.99         $20,024.32 

(3)  Paid  by  Public  to  Evening  Sessions  County  Institute  $  16,404.78 
Paid  by  Public  to  Evening  Sessions  Dist.  Institute  759.67 

$  17,164.45 
Total  Cost  (Minimum)— 1917-18  $581,684.77 

The  enrollment  fees  paid  by  teachers,  $62,216,  is  not  included  in 
computing  this  cost  since  the  fees  are  paid  out  of  the  compensation  of 
teachers,  which  has  already  been  counted  as  cost.  The  minimum  cost 
of  the  teachers'  institutes  in  1921  is  readily  estimated  by  adding  to 
the  above  cost  an  increase  of  33}/^  per  cent  in  compensation  allowed 
teachers,  not  taking  into  consideration  the  increased  number  of 
teachers: 

Cost  1917-18 $581,684.77 

Additional  Compensation .  .  / 170,155.00 

Total  Cost  to  Public $751,839.77 

This,  however,  is  the  very  smallest  estimate  that  can  be  made  of 
the  institutes'  cost.  In  many  of  the  districts  where  separate  institutes 
are  held  the  school  boards  allow  the  regular  salaries  in  addition 
to  the  allowance  of  $4.00  a  day.  Again,  the  $20  allowance  for  the 
week  does  not,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  cover  the  teachers'  expenses 
in  attending  the  institute  when  the  teachers'  preparations  for  the 
institute,  traveling  expenses,  board,  and  incidentals  are  taken  into 
account.  No  one  can  accurately  estimate  this  additional  cost.  The 
sum  of  $1,000,000  as  the  estimated  cost  to  the  public  and  to  the 
teachers  is  probably  not  too  high.  Certainly,  the  irreducible  minimum 
is  three-fourths  of  a  million  dollars. 

COMPARISONS  OF  COSTS 

While  it  is  well  nigh  impossible  to  measure  the  results  of  the 
work  of  the  institute,  there  should  be  no  difficulty  nor  any  question 
to  compare  its  cost  with  other  agencies  whose  function  is  or  has  been 
to  improve  teachers  in  the  service,  or  whose  function  is  to  train 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  131 

teachers.  Our  first  thought  is  to  compare  the  expenditures  of 
teachers'  institutes  with  the  state  aid  for  our  thirteen  state  normal 
school  in  1917-18.  A  few  facts  in  connection  with  the  finances  of 
these  teacher  training  institutions  at  this  time  may  serve  the  purpose 
of  comparisons:"* 

(1)  State  appropriation — $290,239 — 38%  of  amount  spent  on  institutes. 

(2)  Salaries  of  teachers  and  ofTiccrs — $395,493 — 52%,  amount  spent  on  institutes. 

(3)  Number  of  students  at  Normal  Schools  1917-18 — 6615. 

(4)  Per  Capita  State  .\ppropriation — $43.00. 

Per  Capita  cost  per  teacher  of  institutes  1917-18 — $17.00. 
Per  Capita  cost  per  teacher  of  institutes  1921-22 — $22.00. 

(5)  Mortgages  owed  by  Normal  Schools  to  individuals,  $681,941. 
Mortgages  owed  by  Normal  Schools  to  State,  749,146. 

(6)  Number  of  students  graduated  1918 — 1672. 

All  the  data  given  in  connection  with  the  State  Normal  Schools 
seem  to  show  very  clearly  that  our  state  has  not  done  so  well  for 
these  training  schools  as  it  has  done  for  our  institutes  through  the 
legal  mandates  upon  the  school  districts.  The  cost  of  institutes 
would  have  taken  care  of  the  entire  state  appropriation  and  teachers 
and  officers'  salaries,  and  have  had  enough  left  to  pay  for  all  the 
books,  stationery,  and  educational  equipment  at  the  thirteen  schools 
in  1917-18.  There  were  during  this  same  year  6,615  students  at  the 
Normal  Schools,  attending  36  weeks.  The  state  appropriation  to 
each  of  these  students  averaged  SI. 33  a  week.  The  deficiency  bill 
passed  by  the  legislature  in  1919  would  add  $1.33  more.  In  other 
words,  during  a  great  emergency  when  every  possible  assistance 
should  have  been  rendered  our  candidates  for  the  profession  of 
teaching,  the  state  assisted  student  teachers  to  the  extent  of  $2.66 
per  week,  but  it  compelled  the  school  districts  and  the  public  to 
contribute  an  average  of  $22  per  teacher  to  support  teachers'  insti- 
tutes. To  carry  the  comparison  a  little  further  we  may  say  that 
the  entire  debt  of  the  State  Normal  Schools  to  the  state  could  have 
been  paid  by  the  money  spent  on  institutes  one  year;  or  twenty-five 
per  cent  of  the  amount  spent  on  institutes  would  have  been  sufficient 
to  give  each  normal  school  teacher  an  increase  of  $500  a  year  in 
salary. 

Other  Comparisons  of  Costs 

We  can  also  compare  the  cost  of  the  institute  with  the  cost  of 
tuition  in  the  480  summer  schools  in  the  U.  S.,  in  the  summer  of  1918. 

» State  Reports,  1918. 


132  COUNTY  teachers'  institutes  in  PENNSYLVANIA 

The  average  cost  per  student  in  the  summer  schools  in  1918  was 
$24.14.^  This  was  for  an  average  session  of  six  weeks.  As  already- 
pointed  out,  the  institutes  in  Pennsylvania  in  1919  cost  $22  per 
teacher  attending.  This  is  within  two  dollars  of  the  cost  of  tuition 
in  a  six  weeks'  summer  session  in  1918.  (Average.)  The  cost  of  our 
summer  schools  in  Pennsylvania  in  1918  was  $97,548.  Three  thou- 
sand, ninety-one  students  attended  these  schools.  The  average  cost 
in  Pennsylvania  was  $29  for  a  six  weeks'  session,  or  an  average  of  a 
little  less  than  $5.00  a  week.^"  This  rate  is  22  per  cent  as  much  as 
the  cost  per  teacher  per  week  of  the  institute. 

Three-quarters  of  a  million  dollars  would  give  each  of  the  12,000 
who  attended  a  summer  school  in  1921,  $62.50  to  pay  towards  tuition 
and  board.  In  four  years  nearly  every  teacher  in  Pennsylvania, 
exclusive  of  Philadelphia  and  Pittsburgh,  could  attend  one  six 
weeks'  summer  school  session  and  receive  $100  which  would  pay 
practically  all  necessary  expenses.  The  institute  in  four  years  would 
for  the  most  part  contribute  only  four  weeks  training,  in  fact  only 
three,  because  usually  one  day  is  wasted  out  of  five.  This  does  not 
take  into  consideration  the  difficulty  of  such  a  plan  of  carrying  out  a 
continuous  and  connected  program  over  a  period  of  years  with  a 
very  mobile  teaching  population. 

Hundreds  of  districts  in  Pennsylvania  could  employ  additional 
teachers  or  special  supervisors  for  the  money  now  being  spent  on 
institutes.  Closer  supervision  would  be  an  adequate  compensation 
for  the  three-quarters  of  a  million  dollars.  The  compensation  now 
allowed  our  10,000  rural  school  teachers  for  attending  the  institutes 
($200,000)  would  secure  eighty  additional  assistant  county  superin- 
tendents in  Pennsylvania  at  a  salary  of  $2,500  a  year,  thus  consider- 
ably increasing  the  supervisory  force  over  our  rural  schools.  This 
raises  the  question  whether  or  not  more  adequate  supervision  of  our 
rural  schools  would  not  contribute  more  effectively  to  the  improve- 
ment of  teachers  in  service  and  their  teaching.  This  will  be  con- 
sidered in  another  chapter. 

The  sum  of  $750,000  would,  furthermore,  allow  each  of  the  13 
state  normal  schools  in  the  state  nearly  $58,000  which  would  more 
than  take  care  of  the  summer  sessions  and  the  extension  work  of 

'  Report  on  Summer  Schools  1918,  Bulletin  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  No.  31, 
1919. 

i»  Bulletin  No.  31,  1919.     Op.  cit. 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  IS.^ 

these  institutions.  This  same  amount  could  be  used  to  organize  50 
summer  schools  or  six  weeks  duration  by  giving  each  $10,000  and 
also  by  giving  each  normal  summer  session  $20,000. 

The  making  of  these  comparisons  is  no  argument  for  abolishing 
the  County  Institutes.  It  is,  admittedly,  a  concrete  method  of 
comparing  what  agencies  employed  in  teacher  training  costs,  rela- 
tively speaking.  No  one  can  say  that  our  Normal  Schools  have  cost 
too  much  money  nor  that  summer  sessions  of  College  and  Normal 
School  are  too  expensive.  At  the  same  time  there  can  be  no  compari- 
son as  to  the  work  done  by  Normal  Schools,  summer  sessions,  and 
teachers'  institutes. 

In  the  inquiry  sent  out  on  March  1,  1922,  to  28  leading  Educators 
in  Pennsylvania  and  outside  the  state  there  was  one  question  bearing 
on  the  cost  of  institutes: 

(a)  In  view  of  the  program  in  this  state  that  teachers  after  1927  must  have  hij;hcr 
professional  attainments,  do  you  think  that  the  money  spent  on  County  Inslituks  in 
Penna.  (at  least  $750,000  annually),  miglU  be  s petit  for  more  effective  teacher  Iraitiing 
purposes?  (b)  If  so,  in  what  way  or  ways? 

Fourteen  out  of  22  answered  this  question.  All  of  these  were  of  the 
opinion  that  the  expenditure  of  three  quarters  of  a  million  dollars  on 
Institutes  in  Pennsylvania  was  too  much.  The  remaining  eight  did 
not  comment  on  costs.    A  few  of  these  opinions  may  be  worth  while: 

Specialist  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education:  "The  $750,000  now  sp)ent  on  teachers' 
institutes  in  Pennsylvania  could  be  used  to  good  advantage  in  increasing  the  salaries 
of  instructors  in  the  State  normal  schools,  so  the  State  normal  schools  would  have  the 
best  quahficd  teachers  in  the  State.  Or,  if  not  used  for  this  purpose,  it  could  be  used 
on  the  summer  sessions  at  the  normal  schools  and  at  State  College." 

Prof,  of  Education:  "From  what  I  know  of  institutes  in  general,  both  by  having 
attended  them  and  on  account  of  the  requirement  ordinarily  imposed  upon  me  as  an 
instructor  in  institutes,  I  think  it  would  be  best  to  spend  the  money  now  spent  on 
institutes  u|)on  summer  schools." 

Prof,  of  Education:  "Chiefly  in  maintaining  good  summer  schools,  extension 
classes,  and  in  giving  scholarships  to  teachers  who  are  willing  to  take  leaves  of  absence 
for  the  purpose  of  qualifying  for  teacher  certification.  Local  institutes  of  one  day 
duration  with  real  educational  quality  might  be  held  in  the  centers  where  a  number  of 
teachers  could  attend." 

Dean  of  School  of  Edtuation:  "I  believe  that  great  encouragement  to  ihe  State 
Normal  School  of  Penna.  in  the  way  of  more  financial  support  of  the  Summer  Schools 
would  constitute  a  better  agency  for  professional  growth  than  a  large  amount  expended 
on  Institutes." 

Dean  of  School  of  Ettiuation:  "By  paying  tuition  or  put  tuition  in  summer  school, 
extension  course,  etc." 


134  COUNTY  teachers'  institutes  in  PENNSYLVANIA 

Dean  of  School  of  Education:  "If  in  the  rural  counties  where  no  satisfactory  sub- 
stitute for  the  institute  has  as  yet  been  worked  out,  you  could  in  some  way  insure  the 
attendance  upon  a  summer  session  of  a  great  majority  of  the  teachers  including  those 
who  have  had  a  normal  school  course  or  college  course,  then  I  think  the  $750,000 
annually  spent  upon  institutes  might  more  appropriately  be  devoted  to  provide  subsi- 
dies to  these  teacher  training  institutions." 

Former  U.  S.  Com.  of  Education:  "I  believe  the  $750,000  could  be  used  to  much 
better  advantage,  either  in  a  new  form  of  institute,  or  in  summer  schools." 

Director  Training  School:  "I  should  register  my  vote  for  the  expenditure  of  the 
$750,000,  which  has  in  the  past  gone  to  county  institutes,  towards  the  support  of 
more  effective  teacher  training  work." 

Official  P.S.E.A.:  "Where  a  wide-awake  progressive  superintendent  arrays  a 
program  graded  to  suit  the  various  grades  of  service  and  schedules  group  meetings 
with  competent  instructors,  not  entertainers,  the  money  is  well  spent.  In  other  cases, 
much  of  the  money  is  worse  than  wasted  I" 

Normal  School  Principal:  "By  attendance  at  summer  schools,  etc.,  etc." 

Normal  School  Principal:  "Promotion  of  Extension  Courses.  Provide  helping 
teachers  for  rural  schools." 

In  Stating  how  they  would  spend  this  same  money  for  more  effective 
teacher  training  they  invariably  mention  summer  schools,  extension 
courses  with  college  credit,  greater  aid  to  summer  and  Normal  schools, 
and  scholarships  for  teachers  willing  to  take  leaves  of  absence  for 
teacher  certification. 

SUMMARY  OF  FINANCES  OF  INSTITUTES 
1.     There  is  great  inequality  of  ability  among  certain  sparsely 
settled    counties    to    support    efficient    institutes.      This    prevents 
counties   that   really  need   the  institute  from   organizing  a  strong 
program. 

2.  There  is  a  great  and  wide  variation  in  per  capita  institute 
expenditures,  both  in  instruction,  and  evening  lectures  and  entertain- 
ments. 

3.  Institute  costs  too  much  money  in  proportion  to  its  produc- 
tivity. 

4.  Institute  costs  compared  with  other  teacher  training  agencies 
are  much  higher  and  seem  out  of  proportion. 

5.  Less  than  one-half  (42  per  cent)  of  the  county  Institute's 
expenditures  is  spent  on  instruction;  more  than  one-fourth  (27  per 
cent)  is  expended  on  evening  sessions;  the  balance  (31  per  cent)  is 
spent  on  rent,  printing,  song  books,  etc.  Ten  counties  in  1921-22 
out  of  forty  reported  larger  expenditures  for  the  evening  sessions  than 
for  day  instruction. 

6.  Three  quarters  of  a  million  of  dollars  is  the  minimu  m  direct 
cost  of  county  and  district  institutes. 


CHAPTER  Vir 

General  Status  of  Teachers'  Institutes  in  U.  S. 

It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  chapter  to  present  any  thorogoing 
study  of  institutes  in  the  United  States.  That  would  be  foreign  to 
the  object  of  the  entire  investigation  which  concerns  mainly  the 
efficiency  of  Pennsylvania  County  Teachers'  Institutes.  This  phase 
of  the  investigation,  will,  however,  throw  light  on  certain  tendencies 
in  their  application  to  the  Institute  problem  in  the  state.  Another 
value  of  this  part  of  the  study  will  be  the  comparison  that  may  be 
made  with  a  similar  study  by  Ruediger^  in  1911,  when  valuable 
data  were  assembled  on  the  legal  basis  of  teachers'  institutes  in  the 
U.  S.  This  chapter  attempts  to  bring  up  to  date  much  of  the  data 
then  gathered. 

The  Method  Employed 

The  data  in  this  chapter  have  been  gathered  largely  thru  the 
means  of  a  questionnaire-  submitted  to  every  Department  of  Educa- 
tion in  the  48  states.  Forty-six  of  these  departments,  in  many  cases 
the  superintendents  themselves,  answered  the  inquiry.  These  data 
have  been  checked  up  with  the  digests  of  laws  on  education  made  by 
Hood'  and  brought  up  to  1919.  Other  means  have  been  employed 
to  bring  the  information  as  nearly  as  possible  up  to  date  in  1922. 

The  writer  has  also  had  the  opportunity  of  checking  up  these 
data  with  a  recent  study^  that  has  been  also  made  in  a  similar  way, 
but  along  somewhat  different  lines.  This  chapter  will  be  sup- 
plemented by  the  use  of  some  of  these  data  so  as  to  make  this  phase 
of  the  investigation  as  productive  as  possible,  for  comparative  pur- 
poses, to  the  entire  institute  problem  being  investigated. 

'  Ruediger,  W.  C,  ".Agencies  for  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Sen'ice,"  Op.  Cit. 
'Questionnaire  ".\n  Inquiry'  on  Teachers'  Institutes" — see  Appendix. 

*  Hood,  W.  R.,  "State  Laws  Relating  to  Education,"  Bulletins  U.  S.  Bureau  of 
Education,  No.  47, 1915;  No.  2.?,  1918;  No.  30,  1920. 

*  Ix)mmen,  G.,  "The  Teachers'  Institute  for  the  Training  of  Teachers  in  Service," 
Journal  of  Rural  Education,  Oct.  1921,  pp.  60-6S. 

135 


136 


COUNTY  TEACHERS    INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 


CoxJNTV  Teachers'  Institctes 


Insti- 
tute 

sun 

Held? 

Local 

Institute 

Also? 

Area 
Covered 

Does  Law 
Specify 

Time  for 
Holding 

Institute? 

Who  Deter- 
mines   Time 
if  not  Speci- 
fied by  Law? 

Length  of 

Institute? 

CDays) 

Must   it 
be  Held 
on  Con- 
secutive 
Days? 

State 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

1.  Alabama 

Yes 

No. 

County    or 
Group  ol 
Counties 

No 

State  Supt. 

4 

Yes 

Yes 

1      County 
or  2  or  more 

No 

Co.  Supt. 

At  least 
3 

3.  Arkansas 

Yes 

No 

County 

Yes 

Law 

5 

Yes 

4.  California 

Yes 

May 

Co.      Dist. 
with  70  or 
more  teach- 
ers 

No 

Co.  Supt. 

3 

Yes 

Yes 

Several 
Counties 

No 

Inst.    Com. 
of  3  in  each 
District    & 
State  Supt. 
&  President 
Normal 
School 

Normal  In- 
stitute 
10 

Yes 

6.  Connecticut .... 

1    Day 
Meet- 
ing 

(N 

Yes 
3t  Inst.) 

Disregard 
Co.  Lines 

No 

State  Bd.  & 
Local  Bd. 

1 

No 

8.  Florida 

(Maintains  Summer  Schools) 

9.  Georgia 

Yes 

No 

1    or   more 
Counties 

No 

State  Supt. 

S 

No 

10.  Idaho 

Yes 

No 

1    or    more 
Counties 

No 

Co.  Supt. 

5-15    days. 
Teachers 
must       at- 
tend 5  days 
with  pay 

Yes 

11.  Illinois 

Yes 

No 

One  Co. 

No 

Co.  Supt. 

5 

No 

COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 


137 


County  Teacbess'  Institutfs 


Which.  If  Any 
(".roups  of  Teach- 
ers are  Excused 
from  Att.? 

Are  Teach- 
ers Paid 
for  At- 
tendance? 

How  Much? 

Penalty  for 
Non-Att.? 

Nature  of 
Penalty? 

How  Finan- 
ced? 

Teachers 
Fees 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

Attended     Sum- 
mer School 

Usually 

Salary 

Yes 

Contract 
Cancelled 

State  Aid 
$6500 

$.75 

1 

Excused  by  Co. 
Supt. 

Yes,      (un- 
less excused 
by  Supt.) 

Salary 

State  Aid 
$500 

2 

Those   Att.    Ap- 
proved   Summer 
Schools 

No 

Yes 

Loss    of    Li- 
cense 

^ 

Yes 

Salary 

Co.  &  fees  from 
Teachers     who 
need  Cert. 

$2.00 

4 

No 

No 

State,  not  more 
than  $300 

$1.00 

5 

Voluntary 

Occasional- 

ly 

Salary 

No 

State     Aid     & 
Local  Dues 

ft 

7 

8 

Sometimes 

Varies 

May  Fine 

S2.00 

County    School 
Fund 

9 

None  Except  CI. 
A  Cities 

Yes 

Salary 

Yes 

No  Salary 

County  Aid 
$150 

Exam. 
Fees 

10 

None 

Only  if  In- 
stitute,     is 
held  during 
School    Yr. 

Salary 

Yes 

Prof.     Stand- 
ing Credits 

Fees 

$1.00 

11 

138 


COUNTY  TEACHERS    INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 


County  Teachers'  Institutes 


Insti- 
tute 
Still 

Held? 

Local 

Institute 

Also? 

Area 
Covered 

Does  Law 
Specify 
Time  for 
Holding 
Institute? 

Who  Deter- 
mines   Time 
if  not  Speci- 
fied by  Law? 

Length  of 

Institute? 

(Days) 

Must   it 
be  Held 
on  Con- 
secutive 
Days? 

State 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

12.  Indiana 

Yes 

Yes— 1  day 
month  also 
Sat.  in  each 
city  &  twp. 

One  Co. 

No 

Co.  Supt. 

5 

Yes 

13.  Iowa 

Yes 

No 

One  Co. 

Yes 

2 

Yes 

14.  Kansas 

Yes 

Yes  certain 
Days     and 
Subjects 

One  Co. 

(Sumr 

Yes 

ner) 

Co.  Supt. 

5-20 

Yes 

IS.  Kentucky 

Yes 

Co.    Assoc, 
also     Co. 
Tea.  Assoc, 
per.  Org.  q. 
V.  Law 

2   or   more 
Counties 
1-4  Cos. 

Yes 

S 

Yes 

16.  Louisiana 

Yes 

Parish   Yes 
— I  da.  mo. 

Parish 

No 

State  Bd.  of 
Inst.    Mgt. 
&  Supt. 

Usually 
5 

Yes 

Yes 

One  Co. 

No 

Committee 

1-2 

No 

18.  Maryland 

Yes 

No 

One  Co. 

No 

State  Supt. 

10 

Yes 

19.  Mass 

Yes 

Yes — May 

No 

State  Bd.  of 
Education 

1-S 

No 

20.  Michigan 

Yes 

Yes 

County    or 
Joint 

No 

State  Supt. 

1  day  to  6 

weeks 

No 

21.  Minnesota 

Yes 

No 

One  Co. 

No 

Co.  &  State 

3-5 

No 

22.  Mississippi 

Few 

No 

3   or   more 
Counties 

No 

Co.  Supt. 

20-30 

Yes 

23.  Missouri 

No 

No 

24.  Montana 

Yes 
Few 
Co. 

No 

Joint 

No 

Co.  Supt. 

3-5 

Yes 

COUNTY  TEACHERS    INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYI.VANI.V 


139 


County  Teachers'  Institutes 


Which,  If  Any 
Groups  of  Teach- 
ers are  Excused 
from  Att.? 

Arc  Teach- 
ers Paid 
for  At- 
tendance? 

How  Much? 

Penalty  for 
Non-Att.? 

Nature  of 
Penalty? 

How  Finan- 
ced? 

Teachers 
Fees 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

Co. — None 

Yes 

Salary 

Yes 

Loss    of    Li 
cense 

County  .Md 
$100 

$l-$3 

12 

None 

Yes 

Salary 

Yes 

No  Salary 

State  $50 
Co.  $150 

None 

13 

Those  Att.  Sum- 

No 

Yes 

Crs.  for  Cert. 

State  $50. 
Co.  $100. 

$1 — Exam. 
$1 — License 
Fee 

14 

mer  Schools 

City 

Yes 

Salary 

Yes 

Cert. 

Fees 

$1-S2 

$l-$2 

IS 

None 

Yes 

Salary 

Yes 

2  days  Salar>- 

Fees,    Fines    & 
^tate 

16 

Any 

Yes 

Salary 

No 

Varies  State 
$1500 

25-50C 

17 

Those  Att.  Nor 
mal  Schools 

tes 

Salary 

Yes 

No  Salary 

All 

18 

Any 

No 

No 

Co.  Aid 

25-SOc  yr. 

19 

None 

Yes 

Salary 

Yes 

No  Salary 

M.T— $1   each. 
F.T— 50c  each 
State— $100. 

$1— Men 
SOc  Women 

20 

Yes 

Salary 

Yes 

Certificate 
Revoked 

Sute 

71 

mal  Jlchools 

Yes 

$5-|tO 

Yes 

No  Salary 

State 

$150 

77 

mal  Schools 

23 

H.S. 

Yes 

Salao- 

Yes 

Loss  of  Cert. 

County 

Fees 

24 

140 


COUNTY  TEACHERS    INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 


County  Teachers'  Institutes 


Insti- 
tute 
Still 

Held? 

Local 

Institute 

Also? 

Area 
Covered 

Does  Law 
Specify 

Time  for 
Holding 

Institute? 

Who  Deter- 
mines  Time 
if  not  Speci- 
fied by  Law? 

Length  of 

Institute? 

(Days) 

Must   it 
be  Held 
on  Con- 
secutive 
Days? 

State 

1 

2 

3 

4 

S 

6 

7 

25.  Nebraska 

Yes 

No 

2    or    more 
Counties 

No 

Co.  Supt. 

S 

No 

26.  Nevada 

Yes 

Yes  1  in  ea. 
Dist.  in  odd 
years 
make     5 

State  Inst. 
(Several 
Counties  to 
Districts  in 
St.) 

No 

State  Supt. 

4 

No 

27.  New  Hampshire. 

Yes 

County 
(VsLiies) 

No 

State  Supt. 

1-3 

No 

28.  New  Jersey 

Yes 

No 

County 

No 

Com.  of 
Ed. 

1-3 

No 

29.  New  Mexico. . . . 

Yes 

No 

May    have 
Joint 

No 

Co.  Supt 

10-30 

Yes 

30.  New  York 

No 

No 

(Discontinued  in  1911) 

31.  No.  Carolina... 

Yes 

No 

One    to    4 
Counties 

No 

Supt.     and 
Inst.  Bd. 

10 

Yes 

32.  North  Dakota.  . 

Yes 

Yes 

One  Co. 

No 

Co.  Supt.  & 
State  Supt. 

5 

Yes 

33.  Ohio 

Yes 

Irregular 

One  Co. 

No 

County  Bd. 

5 

Yes 

34.  Oklahoma 

No 

No 

(Discontinu 

ed  in  1917) 

Yes 

Yes  — at 
least  3— 
various 
part  of  Co. 

1   or   more 
Cotmties 

No 

Co.  Supt. 

3 

Yes 

36.  Pennsylvania.  .  . 

Yes 

Yes,    but 
not  legal 

County 

No 

Co.  Supt. 

S 

Co.- 
Yes 

City- 
No 

37.  Rhode  Island.  . . 

Yes 

Yes 

Joint — sev- 
eral Towns 

No 

Superinten- 
dent school 
Officers  As- 
sociation, 
etc 

1-3 
Varies 

No 

COUNTY  TEACHERS    INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 


141 


County  Teachers'  Institutes 


Which.  If  Any 
Groups  of  Teach- 
ers are  Excused 
from  Atl.? 

Are  Teach- 
ers Paid 
for  At- 
tendance? 

How  Much? 

Penalty  for 
Non-Att.? 

Nature  of 
Penalty? 

How  Fi- 
nanceii? 

Teachers' 
Fees 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

No 

Yes 

License     Re- 
voked 

License  &  Ex- 
am. Feed 

$2.00 

7S 

— given  j)cr 

Control  of  State 

Yes 

Transpor- 
tation   ;  nd 
Salary 

Yes 

No  Salary 

State  $500. 
DUt.  $250 

76 

Supt. 

No 

No 

Trust  Fd. 

77 

Yes 

Salary 

Yes 

No  Salary 

State  Entirely 

78 

Those  Att.  Sum- 

No 

Yes 

Loss  of  Cert. 

Co.    not    more 
$100 

$2.00 

79 

mer  Schools 

30 

None 

No 

Yes — May 

Can't  Teach 

St.     pays     In- 
structors— Co. 
"  Expenses" 

$200-4250 

31 

High  School  Spe- 
cial Dist. 

Yes 

Salary 

Yes 

May   Revoke 
Certificate 

State  $100. 

$1.00 

32 

Yes 

Salar>-  $2,4 
per  Day 

No 

Co.  Aid 

$1.00 

33 

34 

None 

Yes 

Salary 

Yes 

Certificate 
voked 

Co.— $150  to 
$400 

3S 

None 

Yes 

$4.00     per 
day 

Yes 

$4.00  per  da. 

Co.     not     less 
than   $100   nor 
more  $200. 

$l-$4 

36 

Voluntary 

Ves 

Salary 

No 

Sute  Aid  $500 
whole  Sl 

17 

142 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 


County  Teachers'  Institutes 


Insti- 
tute 
Still 

Held? 

Local 

Institute 

Also? 

Area 
Covered 

Does  Law 
Specify 
Time  for 
Holding 
Institute? 

Who  Deter- 
mines Time 
if  not  Speci- 
fied by  Law? 

Length  of 

Institute? 

(Days) 

Must  it 
be  Held 
on  Con- 
secutive 
Days? 

State 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

38.  South  Carolina . . 

Few 

No 

One  Co. 

No 

Co.  Supt. 

2-3 

Yes 

39.  South  Dokota... 

Yes 

No 

Joint 

No 

State  Supt. 
&  Co.  Supt. 

2-3 

Yes 

40.  Tennessee 

Few 

No 

One  Co. 

No 

Co.  Supt. 

5-10 

No 

41.  Texas 

Yes 

Yes 

One  Co.  or 
Sev.    Cities 

Yes 

Law 

5 

Co.— 

Yes  Ci- 
ty— No 

42.  Utah 

Yes 

Yes 

Joint— Co. 
&  Local 

No 

Co.  Supt. 

2-10 

No 

No 

44.  Virginia 

Yes 

Occasional- 
ly 

One  Co. 

No 

Div.  Supt. 

2-3 

No 

45.  Washington 

Yes 

No 

1   or   more 
Counties 

No 

Co.  Supt. 

5 

3  must 
be 

46.  West  Virgin  !a. . . 

Yes 

Yes 

1    or   more 
Counties 

No 

State  Supt. 
&  Co.  Supt. 

5 

Yes 

47.  Wisconsin 

Yes    in 
Coun- 
ties De- 
signated 
by 

State 
Supt. 

Yes 

County 

No 

State  Supt. 
&    Bd.    of 
Normal 
School  Re- 
gents 

2-10 

Yes 

Yes 

Co.— 2     or 
more    Cos. 
may     have 
Joint 

No 

Co.  Supt. 

4-8 

COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 


143 


County  Teachers'  Institites 


Which.  If  Any 
Groups  of  Teach- 
ers are   Excused 
faom  Alt.? 

Are  Teach- 
ers Piiid 
for  At- 
tendance? 

How  Much? 

Penally  for 
Non-Att.? 

Nature  of 
Penally? 

How  Finan- 
ced? 

Teachers 
Fees 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

Optional 
withUoard 

Expenses 

No 

Co.  Aid 

.18 

None  except 
City  &  H.  S. 

Yes 

Salary 

Yes 

License  Co. 
or  Cr.  Lost 

Aid  up  to 
$150 

19 

No 

Yes 

Cert.  Void 

State  Inst.  Fd 

50c  to  $1. 

40 

None 

Yes 

Salary 

Yes 

Cerlificate 
Cancelled 

County 

$1.00 

41 

Co.  Bd.  $100 

42 

4.1 

None 

Yes 

Salary 

Yes 

No  Salary 

Co.  Aid 

44 

Yes 

Salao' 

Yes 

Loss  of  Cerl. 

Co.  $200.  Supt. 

4S 

Record 

Those  Att.  Sum- 
mer Sessions 

Yes 

$2.50     per 
day 

Yes 

Not    Allowed 
to  Teach 

For  entire  State 
$10,000 

$1.25 

46 

None 

No 

None 

No 

None 

State    Aid    for 
all  Counties, 
$9,000 

47 

Supt.    may    ex 
empt    for    goo< 
reason 

Yes 

Salary 

Yes 

Certificate 
Revoked 

Co.  Com. 

48 

144  COUNTY  teachers'  institutes  in  PENNSYLVANIA 

WHERE  INSTITUTE  IS  HELD 

According  to  the  best  available  information  some  form  of  Institute 
is  held  in  42  states,  though  Miss  Lommen^  gives  the  number  as  44. 
The  following  states  have  abohshed  the  Institute:  New  York, 
Missouri,  Delaware,  Oklahoma,  and  Vermont,  while  Florida  holds  a 
six  weeks'  Normal  Institute  and  can  hardly  be  included.  Of  the  42 
states  that  still  hold  some  form  of  institute  six  hold  only  a  few. 
These  states  are,  Montana  where  it  is  being  displaced  by  the  summer 
school;  Maryland  where  two- thirds  of  the  counties  have  summer 
schools;  Mississippi  and  South  Carolina;  Kentucky,  where  they  are 
largely  local  and  non-compulsory.  Two  of  the  states.  North  Caro- 
lina and  Nevada  have  institutes  every  other  year.  There  are, 
therefore,  only  35  states  that  still  observe  the  custom  of  holding 
regularly  some  type  of  teachers'  institute,  namely  of  the  county  unit 
type. 

Instikite — Permissive  and  Otherwise 
In  seven  of  the  35  states  that  hold  the  institute  either  as  a  county 
or  modified  county  plan,  the  institute  is  either  permissive  or  so 
modified  that  they  cannot,  strictly  speaking,  be  said  to  be  regularly 
held.  The  data  at  this  date  seems  to  indicate  that  in  at  least  28 
to  30  states  the  institute  still  has  a  legal  basis  for  its  maintenance. 
This  also  confirms  the  study  already  quoted.  Colorado  has  no 
regular  county  institute,  but  a  Normal  Institute  for  two  weeks, 
the  state  being  divided  into  13  districts  for  the  purpose;  Connecticut 
has  a  one  day  "teachers'  meeting" — not  a  typical  institute;  Maine 
has  what  may  be  called  County  Associations,  one  or  two  days,  but 
fully  legalized;  Massachusetts,  whenever  25  or  more  teachers  in  one  or 
more  contiguous  towns  request  it,  authorize  an  institute  for  one  to 
five  days;  Nevada  holds  her  institute  every  other  year;  Ohio  may 
have  one  if  30  or  more  teachers  ask  for  it;  Wisconsin  gives  the  State 
Superintendent  discretion  in  designating  which  counties  shall  have 
an  institute — usually  those  without  the  benefits  of  Normal  School 
location. 

Hence,  we  may  say  that  there  has  been  since  1910^  a  strong 
tendency  either  to  abolish  the  typical  county  institute  or  so  modify 
it  that  to-day  not  more  than  28  states  have  typical  institutes  with  a 
legal  basis  for  its  compulsory  annual  maintenance.    Geographically, 

^  Lommen,  G. — "The  Institute  as  an  Agency,  etc." — Op.  Cit. 
«  Ruediger — Op.  Cit. 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  145 

of  the  28  states  that  require  compulsory  attendance,  15  are  Western 
States,  10  Southern  and  3,  including  Pennsylvania,  Eastern.  It 
will  thus  be  seen  that  the  New  England  and  Middle  Atlantic  States 
have  practically  discontinued  the  County  Institute  as  such.  The 
advent  of  summer  schools  and  increased  facilities  for  the  training  of 
teachers  have  brought  this  about. 

Local  Institutes 
In  addition  to  the  usual  type  of  county  institute,  local  or  district 
institutes  are  found  in  20  states,  all  except  two  of  which  also  have  the 
county  institute.  In  all  but  a  few  of  these  states,  the  local  institutes 
have  legal  sanction,  either  obligatory  or  permissive.  In  Pennsylvania 
many  districts  hold  local  institutes,  but  there  is  no  legal  basis  for 
them.  In  Massachusetts,  and  Rhode  Island  they  are  permissive 
and  may  receive  some  state  aid;  in  Indiana  they  must  be  held  one 
Saturday  in  each  month;  in  Louisiana  the  parish  superintendent  must 
hold  one  one  day  each  month.  The  teachers  are  paid  $2.00  a  day 
and  mileage,  with  one  day's  salary  forfeited  for  non-attendance. 
In  Utah  a  certain  number  of  local  institutes  may  be  the  equivalent 
of  the  county  institute.  In  Kentucky  a  local  institute  must  be 
held  in  each  magisterial  district,  while  in  Nevada  the  district  institute 
is  held  in  each  county  each  alternate  year  with  the  regular  "super- 
visional"  institute.  In  Oregon  at  least  three  must  be  held  in  each 
county.  Whether  or  not  local  institutes,  if  properly  organized  with 
definite  educational  functions,  can  provoke  educational  sentiment 
in  the  immediate  community  and  at  the  same  time  be  some  agency 
to  promote  professional  zeal,  solidarity,  and  growth,  is  without  the 
province  of  this  investigation,  though  their  possibilities  are  worthy 
of  consideration. 

Unit  of  Administration — Territory  Covered 
In  the  43  states  where  some  type  of  institute  is  still  held,  16  are 
of  the  strictly  county  unit  type.  In  25  the  law  permits  joint  institutes 
of  two  or  more  counties,  usually  contiguous  counties.  Two  states, 
Nevada  and  Michigan  hold  state  institutes.  The  law,  therefore, 
permits  in  many  states  joint  institutes,  in  several  states  joint  district 
or  town  institutes.  While  this  permission  is  evident,  the  writer  has 
no  means  of  stating  to  what  extent  joint  institutes  are  actually  held. 
That  this  permission,  if  used,  could  be  used  to  improve  the  institute 
program  is  self  evident,  particularly  in  such  counties  with  small 
groups  of  teachers  and  scant  financial  resources. 


146  COUNTY  teachers'  institutes  in  PENNSYLVANIA 

In  one  state,  Nevada,  an  overlapping  or  "relay"  program  was 
used  in  1921  in  the  five  supervisional  institutes.  This  plan  provided 
that  the  corps  of  speaker  progressed  in  order  from  one  institute  to 
the  other.  This  is  the  Chautauqua  scheme  of  scheduling  speakers. 
By  a  plan  of  the  overlapping  dates  this  is  possible.  When  the  official 
speakers  are  under  the  control  of  one  authority,  this  is  possible. 
In  a  state  like  Penna.  with  66  counties  to  provide  for,  the  entire 
institute  program  could  be  run  off  in  three  or  four  months.  By  a 
zoning  or  regional  scheme,  this  time  could  be  reduced  considerably. 

Joint  institutes  among  the  counties  in  Penna.  have  no  legal  basis, 
though  the  district  or  city  joint  institutes  are  held  in  many  places. 
In  the  latter  type  of  institutes,  there  seems  to  be  no  definite  legal 
basis,  but  neither  is  there  any  legal  prohibition. 

Duration  of  Institutes 

The  duration  of  institutes  in  the  43  states  when  still  held  varies 
very  much  from  one  day  in  Connecticut  to  six  weeks  in  Michigan. 
However,  when  an  institute  meets  more  than  five  days  it  ceases  to  be 
an  institute,  in  the  commonly  accepted  meaning  of  the  term.  Sum- 
marizing the  data  we  find  that  in  17  states  institutes  meet  less 
than  5  days;  5  days  in  15  states;  10  days  in  4  states,  and  in  7  the 
time  varies  above  5  days  to  6  weeks.  In  three  states  institutes 
meet  from  one  to  three  days,  in  three  others  three  days.  The  three 
day  period  seems  to  be  increasing  as  the  length  of  time  in  which 
institutes  are  held. 

Consecutive  or  N on-Consecutive  Days 

In  22  states  the  institutes  must  meet  on  successive  days;  in  17 
they  do  not.  In  other  states  they  either  meet  one  or  two  days,  or 
information  is  lacking. 

Number  in  Legal  Area 

As  a  general  rule  only  one  institute  meets  in  the  legal  unit  or  area; 
in  10  states  the  number  varies  from  one  to  three,  in  the  county  or 
district  as  legalized. 

Compulsory  Attendance 

In  the  matter  of  compulsory  attendance  a  great  deal  of  variety 
and  exceptions  are  found.  In  a  general  way  we  find  that  in  19 
states  no  groups  of  teachers  are  excused  from  attendance;  in  3 
states  city  teachers  may  be  excused;  in  7  states  teachers  who  are 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  147 

attending  or  have  attended  summer  schools  within  a  certain  period 
are  excused;  in  3  states  teachers  may  be  excused  by  the  County 
Superintendent  for  good  reasons;  in  7  states  attendance  is  voluntary; 
in  1  state  teachers  from  graded  schools,  in  1  experienced  teachers, 
while  in  3  high  school  teachers  are  excused.  In  1  state  high  school 
graduates  may  be  excused.  The  tendency  is,  however,  to  accept  sum- 
mer school  attendance  in  lieu  of  institute  attendance.  A  good 
example  of  this  practice  is  Maryland. 

Penalty  for  N on- Attendance 

In  26  states  teachers  are  penalized  in  some  way  or  other  for  non- 
attendance  unless  excused;  in  2  they  may  be  penalized;  in  9  states 
there  is  no  penalty  attached.  Information  for  other  6  states  is 
incomplete. 

In  9  states  the  penalty  for  non-attendance  is  loss  of  salary;  in 
7  certificate  is  forfeited;  in  2  credits  for  certificate  are  lost;  in  9 
the  license  is  revoked;  in  2  teachers  can't  teach  if  absent  from  insti- 
tute; in  1  the  contract  is  cancelled.  In  one  state  the  penalty  is  S2; 
in  another  the  penalty  is  two  days'  salary,  while  in  Pennsylvania 
teacher  forfeits  salary  and  is  fined  $4.00  for  each  day's  absence. 
The  fine  in  Pennsylvania  is  seldom,  if  ever,  inflicted.  Information 
for  11  states  is  incomplete. 

Pay  for  Attendance 

In  28  states  teachers  are  paid  for  attending  institutes;  in  11 
they  are  not;  in  4  they  may  be.  In  25  states  the  regular  salary 
continues;  in  Mississippi  the  pay  is  from  $5  to  $10;  in  one  state 
pay  is  $2.50  if  school  is  not  in  session;  in  5  states  expenses  are  paid; 
in  Pennsylvania  the  allowance  is  $4.00  a  day,  but  Institute  time 
cannot  be  counted  as  time  taught. 

Financing  the  Institute 

In  19  states  institutes  are  supported  by  county  aid  which  varies 
considerably;  in  21  by  state  aid;  3  have  combination  of  the  two  plans; 
in  5  they  have  fees  and  examination  registration  fee;  in  1  state  (N.  H.) 
there  is  an  institute  fund  from  the  proceeds  of  land  sales.  In  21 
states  they  charge  an  enrollment  fee  to  teachers.  In  some  it  is  from 
25  cents  to  50  cents;  in  others  from  $1  to  $4.  The  methods  of  county 
and  state  aid  are  too  varying  to  summarize,  but  they  can  be  seen  from 
the  table. 


148  COUNTY  teachers'  institutes  in  PENNSYLVANIA 

Attitudes  of  the  Departments 

Thirty-nine  departments  answered  the  inquiry  as  to  whether  or 
not  the  institute  should  be  abolished.  Twenty-nine  (29)  said  No; 
4  said  Yes;  7  did  not  answer;  6  do  not  have  any.  In  reply  whether 
the  state  should  aid  summer  schools  in  preference  to  county  institutes, 
15  said  yes;  6  no;  5  both.    Twenty-two  did  not  answer. 

Aims  or  Functions 

No  serious  attempt  was  made  in  this  investigation  to  determine 
thru  the  State  Departments  of  Public  Instruction  their  ranking  of 
certain  functions  of  institutes.  The  information  received,  however, 
seems  to  justify  the  ranking  of  aims  by  these  departments  as  given  in 
Chapter  II  on  "Aims" — page  20,  as  follows: 

1.  Methods  of  Instruction. 

2.  Inspirational  or  professional. 

3.  Discussion  School  Problems. 

4.  Rural  Education. 

Lommen^  thus  gives  the  comparative  ratings  of  institute  functions: 

1 .  To  give  instructions  in  methods  of  teaching. 

2.  To  inspire  professional  idealism. 

3.  To  develop  esprit  de  corps. 

4.  To  provide  local  administrative  and  supervisory  forces  with  opportunity  to 
promote  and  unify  local  plans  for  the  educational  program  of  the  year. 

5.  To  acquaint  local  teaching  body  with  the  progressive  tendencies  in  elementary 
education  as  shown  by  the  scientific  investigation  of  educational  leaders. 

6.  To  give  instruction  in  subject  matter. 

There  seems  to  be  a  close  agreement  in  these  evaluations,  with  those 
of  the  present  study. 

'  Lommen,  G. — Journal  of  Rural  Education — Oct.  1921,  p.  67. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

Summary — (a)  P^ixdincs 

(b)  What  Shall  Be  Done? 

(a)  FINDINGS 
This,  the  concluding  chapter,  must  be  viewed  in  the  light  of  the 
purpose  of  the  study  as  expressed  in  the  Introduction — "The  present 
study  is  an  attempt  to  determine  the  efficiency  of  County  Teachers' 
Institutes  in  Pennsylvania."  The  status  of  institutes  has  been  stressed 
thruout  in  order  to  present  adequate  facts  as  to  origins,  aims  and 
ideals,  organization,  programs  and  personnel,  improvement  of 
teachers  in  service,  its  influence  on  the  public,  costs,  and  the  general 
practice  in  states  where  institutes  still  exist.  In  no  other  way  than  by 
presenting  such  facts  as  this  investigation  offers,  ought  judgment  be 
passed.  At  the  same  time  the  experience  and  judgment  of  those  who 
should  know,  cannot  be  discounted.  Out  of  this  judgment  and 
opinion,  and  the  facts  as  revealed,  we  can  select  the  outstanding 
findings. 

Summary  of  Important  Findings 

1.  There  is  a  real  institute  problem  as  evidenced  by  the  wide 
divergence  of  judgment  as  to  the  value  and  function  of  the  institute, 
both  past  and  present.    (Chapter  I  and  Introduction.) 

2.  Institutes  had  their  origin  in  the  storm  and  stress  of  the 
serious  emergency  thru  which  public  education  was  passing  in  the 
early  fifties;  institutes  were  of  a  temporary  nature  to  relieve  at  the 
time  the  shortage  of  adequately  trained  teachers,  and  to  foster  thru 
the  stimulating  effects  of  institutes  a  safe,  sane  and  healthy  public 
.sentiment  for  education.     (Chapter  I — "Historical  Origins.") 

3.  In  Pennsylvania  county  institutes  were  the  outgrowth  of 
teachers'  voluntary  associations,  which  brought  about  the  creation  of 
the  county  supcrintendency  in  1854.  (Institutes  were  not  legalized 
until  1867.)  From  the  creation  of  the  county  superintcndency  the 
institute  became  an  instrument  of  great  power  in  the  hands  of  the 
County  Superintendent,  not  only  for  inculcating  professional  zeal 
into  the  body  of  the  teachers,  but  for  influencing  the  public.  (Chapter 
I,  "Origins.") 

149 


150  COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA 

4.  Institutes  were  voluntary  agencies  until  1867;  during  the 
period  from  1850  to  the  period  of  their  legalization  (1867)  the  County 
Superintendency  Act  (1854)  and  the  Normal  School  Act  (1857) 
were  both  passed,  largely  thru  the  influence  of  institutes  and  the 
Pennsylvania  State  Educational  Association.     (Chapter  I.) 

5.  The  underlying  aim  of  the  institute  is,  undoubtedly,  the 
improvement  of  teachers  in  service  thru  the  development  of  an 
esprit  de  corps,  or  professional  spirit  and  zeal.  This  is  the  aim  held  by 
county  superintendents.  This  aim  differs  from  that  of  teachers  and 
many  prominent  educators.  An  examination  of  Chapter  II  on 
"Aims"  shows  that  superintendents  place  more  stress  on  "pro- 
fessional inspiration"  than  teachers,  who  place  more  emphasis  on 
"Methods  of  Instruction."  The  three  most  important  aims  of  the 
institute  as  given  by  2,300  teachers  in  their  order  of  ranking  are: 
a.  Methods  of  Teaching;  b.  Professional  Inspiration,  which  can  be 
interpreted  to  be  professional  spirit;  c.  Understanding  New  Move- 
ments in  Education.  The  four  most  important  aims  selected  by 
county,  district  superintendents,  and  supervising  principals,  as  ranked 
in  their  order  are:  a.  Professional  Inspiration;  b.  Methods  of 
Teaching;  c.  Social  Contacts  (by  Co.  Supt.);  d.  Exchange  of  Ideas 
(by  District  Superintendents);  e.  Impetus  to  professional  reading 
(Co.  Supts.);  f.  Understanding  New  Movements  in  Education 
(Supervisory  officials.)    (Chapter  II —  "Aims"). 

6.  The  aims  formulated  by  those  not  immediately  interested  in 
Pennsylvania  institutes  but  whose  expert  judgment  should  be 
carefully  considered  are:  professional  growth  of  teachers;  knowledge 
of  changing  conceptions  of  education,  or  "new  movements";  appre- 
ciation of  great  work  teachers  are  in;  real  instruction  in  methods; 
keeping  the  corps  of  teachers  alive,  "breaking  down  of  school  and 
district  lines."    (Chapter  II.) 

7.  The  aims  of  institutes  as  formulated  thru  the  ranking  of 
certain  institute  functions  by  State  Departments  are: 

a.  Methods  of  teaching;  b.  professional  idealism;  c.  esprit  de 
corps;  d.  clearing  house  for  State  Department  of  Public  Instruction; 
e.  scientiiic  progress  in  education;  f.  instruction  in  subject  matter. 
(Chapter  II — "Aims"  and  Lommen.) 

8.  The  formulation  of  a  working  aim  for  institutes  is  very 
difficult  because  so  much  depends  on  the  needs  of  the  groups  to  be 
reached.  Hence,  the  conclusion  that  the  prime  aim  of  the  institute 
should  he  the  meeting  of  teachers'  professional  needs  in  a  particular 
county  or  counties  or  region.    (Chapter  II.) 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  151 

9.  The  great  majority  of  county  institutes  do  not  seem  to  be 
organized  to  carry  out  any  specific  aim  or  purpose.  The  tendency  is 
towards  sectional  divisions,  but  very  few  programs  have  shown  any 
continuous  or  specific  program  or  goal.  The  subjects  appear  rather 
promiscuous  and  isolated.  There  seems  to  be  no  evidence  anywhere 
in  the  institute  organizations  that  would  indicate  a  forward  looking 
program,  or  an  evidence  of  preparation  on  the  part  of  teachers  for 
the  institute.  Institutes  in  Pennsylvania  seem  to  be  organized 
more  on  the  convention  plan,  than  on  any  plan  which  might  indicate 
a  definite  purpose.    (Chapter  III — "Organization.") 

10.     There  seems  to  be  a  great  waste  of  time  in  the  institutes. 
(Chapter  III.) 

11.  Institutes  show  little  evidence  that  teachers  have  had  any 
share  in  the  preparation  of  the  programs  or  in  its  participation. 
(Chapter  III.) 

12.  There  seems  to  be  no  correlation  between  what  superintend- 
ents prefer  and  what  they  practice  in  the  organization  of  the  insti- 
tute.   (Chapter  III.) 

13.  Institute  programs  show  a  predominance  of  general  instruc- 
tional materials  over  specific;  very  little  content  for  rural  teachers; 
nothing  of  specific  value  to  high  school  teachers  or  principals.  (Chap- 
ter IV — "Program  and  Personnel.") 

14.  All  the  factors  contributing  to  this  investigation  favor 
departmentalizing  the  institute  into  sections  at  least  half  the  time, 
and  general  sessions  the  other  half.  This  proportion  of  division  is 
almost  unanimous.    (Chapter  III.) 

15.  Too  much  of  the  institute  time  is  occupied  by  a  few  instruc- 
tors, usually  the  so-called  "professional  lecturer."    (Chapter  IV.) 

16.  There  is  a  scarcity  of  practical  school  men  on  the  program. 
Teachers  show  strong  preference  for  such  men  as  institute  instructors. 
(Chapter  IV.) 

17.  There  is  very  little  co-operation  between  the  Normal 
Schools  and  the  county  institutes  held  within  their  own  territory. 
(Chapter  IV.) 

18.  Teachers  and  county  superintendents  rank  "professional" 
lecturers  difTerently — fourth  by  the  former,  first  by  the  latter;  the 
former  rank  practical  school  men  first;  the  latter  fourth.  (Chapter 
IV.) 

19.  New  movements  in  education  are  represented  on  the 
programs  by  a  very  small  per  cent  of  assignments,  an  indication 


152  COUNTY  teachers'  institutes  in  PENNSYLVANIA 

that  one  of  the  outstanding  aims  preferred  by  teachers  and  educators 
of  prominence  is  not  adequately  met.    (Chapter  IV.) 

20.  There  is  an  appreciable  increase  in  the  number  of  institute 
instructors  sent  by  the  State  Department  of  Public  Instruction,  thus 
bringing  into  the  institute  its  service  as  a  clearing  house  for  the 
Department  activities,  plans,  and  ideals.     (Chapter  IV.) 

21.  Programs  do  not  show  that  much  attention  has  been  given  to 
the  demonstration  plan  of  instruction,  nor  to  conferences.  (Chapter 
IV.) 

22.  It  is  very  doubtful  whether  the  programs  of  the  rural 
counties  are  much  different  from  those  of  non-rural  counties.  This 
would  indicate  that  the  maximum  of  opportunity  for  professional 
improvement  is  not  put  into  the  rural  county  institute  program, 
thus  losing  what  is  probably  the  greatest  opportunity  of  the  Penna. 
institute — viz.  the  professional  impression  that  might  be  made  on 
the  typically  rural  county.    (Chapter  IV.) 

23.  The  training  "in-service"  of  teachers  in  Pennsylvania  is 
still  necessary.  This  type  of  service  will  probably  always  be  needed 
until  there  is  a  group  of  teachers  who  have  reached  their  "professional 
majority"  when  they  enter  the  profession  or  soon  thereafter.  The 
Pennsylvania  program  shows  the  need  of  training  teachers  while  they 
are  in  the  service  in  order  that  they  may  earn  the  minimum  pro- 
fessional requirements  by  1927.  (Chapter  IV — "Improvement  of 
Teachers  in  Service.") 

24.  The  question  in  evaluating  the  institute  as  an  agency  to  train 
or  improve  teachers  in  service  depends  on  what  is  meant  by  this 
training.  If  by  the  improvement  of  teachers  in  the  service  is  meant 
the  acquisition  of  greater  teaching  power,  the  institute  must  be 
regarded  as  not  thus  functioning.  If  "professional  inspiration"  is 
the  basis  of  this  improvement,  or  if  general  instructional  work  also 
is,  then  the  institute  functions  as  such  an  agency.  The  present  day 
tendency  is  to  regard  evidence  of  strictly  professional  growth,  of 
greater  teaching  power,  and  adherence  to  a  type  of  professional 
zeal  which  makes  for  growth,  good  criteria  for  the  improvement  of 
teachers  in  service. 

Viewed  in  this  light,  we  must  conclude  that  in  the  very  large 
majority  of  county  institutes  the  contribution  towards  such  improve- 
ment is  very  low.  The  judgment  of  teachers  gives  a  rating  of  37.4 
per  cent  to  "professional  inspiration"  as  the  most  valuable  contri- 
bution of  the  institute,  but  9.5  per  cent  to  the  discussion  of  school 
problems,  and  30  per  cent  to  "methods  of  teaching."     (Chapter  V.) 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  153 

25.  District  superintendents  and  supervising  principals  would 
prefer  to  make  other  uses  of  money  now  spent  on  institutes.  They 
selected  summer  schools,  professional  reading,  closer  supervision, 
and  demonstration  classes  as  all  having  higher  value  than  county 
institutes  as  agencies  to  improve  teachers  in  service.  One-third  of 
the  county  superintendents  answering  the  inquiry  as  to  the  relative 
value  of  teachers'  institutes  and  summer  sessions,  preferred,  if  it  were 
possible,  summer  schools.     (Chapter  V.) 

26.  Out  of  1,376  teachers,  42  per  cent  preferred  the  institute  as 
an  agency  in  the  improvement  of  teachers,  altho  58  per  cent  pre- 
ferred either  two  or  three  day  educational  meetings,  local  institutes, 
or  summer  schools  (21.6  per  cent). 

27.  The  judgment  of  prominent  educators  quoted  seems  to  be 
that  the  institute  does  not  contribute  to  the  professional  training  of 
teachers.    (Chapter  V.) 

28.  The  striking  facts  disclosed  by  the  financial  phase  of  this 
study  are:  the  inequality  of  opportunities  for  financing  institutes 
in  those  very  counties  that  need  institutes;  the  large  per  cent  of  the 
revenue  spent  on  the  lecture  and  entertainment  features  of  the  insti- 
tutes; the  payment  of  43  per  cent  of  instructional  fees  to  20  persons 
in  40  counties  in  one  year;  less  than  one-half  of  the  e.xpenditures  in 
the  county  institutes  is  for  other  purposes  than  instruction;  the 
disproportionate  total  expense  of  county  institutes  compared  with 
what  the  state  used  to  do  for  the  13  State  Normal  Schools;  what 
might  be  done  in  the  real  training  of  teachers  with  the  minimum 
total  cost  to  the  public  of  county  teachers'  institutes  ($750,000). 
(Chapter  VI.) 

29.  The  national  survey  shows  two  outstanding  features  or 
tendencies — that  the  cost  of  institutes  to  the  public  in  any  state  is 
smaller  than  in  Pennsylvania;  that  the  tendency  is  for  institutes  to 
meet  from  one  to  three  days  instead  of  five.  The  legal  sanction  for 
joint  institutes,  and  the  large  number  of  states  that  authorize  insti- 
tutes, but  do  not  require  them,  are  other  characteristics  worthy  of 
stressing.    (Chapter  VII.) 

30.  There  have  been  many  benefits  accruing  to  teachers  from 
institutes  in  the  past.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned  the  profes- 
sional impression  made;  the  creation  of  public  sentiment;  the  agency 
for  carrying  out  state-wide-educational  movements;  opportunity 
given  teachers  for  social  contacts;  opportunity  given  many  teachers 
to  hear  noted  men  and  women  of  prominence,  etc.     (Chapter  V.) 


154  COUNTY  teachers'  institutes  in  PENNSYLVANIA 

Conclusion 

We  are  constrained  to  say  after  weighing  carefully  the  facts 
revealed  by  this  study,  and  especially  the  deficiencies  of  the  program, 
the  high  cost  of  the  institute  compared  with  the  product,  the  lack  of 
organization  to  make  effective  the  wisest  use  of  time,  the  isolated  and 
disconnected  features  of  many  programs,  that  the  opportunity  to 
make  the  most  out  of  the  institute  has  not  been  fulfilled;  that  in 
spite  of  the  many  valuable  features  of  the  institutes  and  their  service 
to  public  education  in  the  past,  they  are  not  functioning  eflficiently 
to-day  as  agencies  in  the  practical  in-service  and  after-training  of 
teachers.  We  believe,  therefore,  that  the  facts  justify  the  con- 
clusion that  according  to  the  accepted  principles  of  efificiency, 
county  teachers'  institutes  in  Pennsylvania  are,  in  a  large  measure, 
and  in  many  counties,  inefificient. 

{h)  WHAT  SHALL  BE  DONE? 

There  is  no  presumption  in  this  study  to  solve,  what  is  admittedly, 
a  problem.  What  shall  be  done  with  teachers'  institute  in  Pennsyl- 
vania? Facts  bearing  on  the  historical  and  contemporary  ideals  and 
purposes  of  institutes  have  been  gathered,  presented,  and  wherever 
possible,  interpreted.  No  one  with  a  mind  open  to  truth  and  con- 
viction as  revealed  by  the  facts  can  boldly  generalize  by  challenging 
the  usefulness  of  teachers'  institutes  without  some  modifications. 
That  institutes  have  had  much  value  in  the  past,  that  they  might 
have  more  real  value  at  present  than  they  do,  cannot  be  doubted. 
After  all,  the  real  issue  that  cannot  be  avoided  is,  "Do  county 
institutes  have  sufficient  productive  returns  on  the  investment, 
direct  and  indirect,  to  warrant  their  continuance?" 

Constructive  Suggestions 

It  seems  to  the  writer  that  in  view  of  the  conclusion  that  insti- 
tutes in  Pennsylvania  as  at  present  organized  and  managed  are 
generally  inefificient,  five  lines  of  action  are  possible.  These  are 
submitted  in  the  light  of  the  experience  in  this  state  and  practices 
as  found  in  other  states. 

These  five  lines  of  possible  action  are: 

1.  Abolish  county  institutes  entirely. 

2.  Continue  them  as  present,  but  plan  for  their  improvement. 

3.  Curtail  their  time  and  improve  them. 


COUNTY  teachers'  institutes  in  PENNSYLVANIA  155 

4.  Make  them  permissive  for  optional  periods  and  counties  or 

districts. 

5.  Legalize  Teachers'  Associations. 
We  shall  consider  each  briefly. 

1.     Abolish  Them 

The  investigation  has  revealed  no  strong  sentiment  among  super- 
intendents or  teachers  for  their  al)solute  discontinuance.  Very  few 
of  the  prominent  educators  who  have  expressed  their  views  have 
given  as  their  judgment  that  the  county  institute  should  be  abolished. 
Those  who  have  advocated  its  discontinuance,  have  invariably  no 
substitute  for  it.  Dr.  Snedden,  formerly  Commissioner  of  Education 
in  Massachusetts  and  an  authority  on  all  forms  of  public  educational 
administration  has  well  presented  the  objections  to  their  discon- 
tinuance now:^ 

I  should  consider  it  very  ill-advised  in  the  present  juncture  of  American  Educa- 
tion to  recommend  lessening  of  the  institute.  Rather  should  we  contend  for  an  im- 
provement in  its  quality. 

Dr.  Snedden  recommends  that  there  be  an  institute  before  the  open- 
ing of  school  and  one  after  the  closing  of  the  schools,  as  periods  for 
"professional  preparation  and  review."'^  We  can,  therefore,  acquiesce 
in  Dr.  Snedden's  observation  that  the  institute  be  continued  at 
present,  especially  in  view  of  the  educational  renaissance  in  Penn- 
sylvania when  much  missionary  work  for  public  enlightenment  and 
professional  zeal  will  be  necessary  for  the  educational  program  under 
way. 

At  the  same  time  it  cannot  be  expected  that  institutes  should  be 
allowed  to  continue  at  such  great  costs  to  school  districts  unless 
there  is  shown  an  immediate  and  decided  improvement  all  around. 
At  this  point  it  may  be  sufficiently  instructive  to  call  attention  to  what 
the  Department  of  Education  of  New  York  State  said  in  1912  after 
institutes  were  abolished  in  that  state: 

When  progression  ceases,  deterioration  sets  in.  The  institutes  seem  to  have 
reached  the  limit  of  their  efliciency  and  the  time  is  ripe  to  take  a  step  fonvard  in  the 
matter  of  helping  and  stimulating  teachers.  .  .  .  We  say  that  a  teacher  should 
not  do  for  her  pupils  what  they  can  easily  do  for  themselves.  It  is  equally  true  that 
the  states  should  not  do  for  the  teachers  what  they  can  do  for  themselves. 

•  Excerpt  from  letter  to  inquiry. 

*  Lommen,  G.,  Oct.  Number  Journal  of  Education,  op.  cit. 


156  COUNTY  teachers'  institutes  in  PENNSYLVANIA 

Continuing,  the  statement  gives  expression  to  the  feeUng  that 

if  teachers  get  together  and  take  an  active  interest  in  their  associations,  they  will 
greatly  be  strengthened  thereby.  It  is  confidently  predicted  that  the  discontinuance 
of  institutes  will  be  followed  by  greater  activity  on  the  part  of  teachers'  associations 
and  that  they  will  greatly  increase  in  efficiency. 

Were  institutes  to  be  abolished  in  Pennsylvania,  the  Pennsyl- 
vania State  Educational  Association  would  undoubtedly  provide 
for  the  organization  of  county  branches  of  the  association,  voluntary 
in  their  character,  but  withal  worthy  substitutes  for  teachers  to 
become  affiliated  with. 

2.     Continue  Them  as  at  Present,  but  Improve  Them 

This  proposition  has  already  been  made  and  discussed  somewhat 
under  1.  If  it  is  concluded  to  continue  institutes,  it  is  naturally  a 
corollary  to  insist  that  they  should  be  improved  in  view  of  their 
present  inefficiency.  Should  they  be  continued  as  at  present,  v/hich 
means  five  days?  There  can  be  no  doubt  of  their  needed  improve- 
ment, but  in  view  of  the  tendency  among  the  43  states  that  still 
maintain  some  type  of  institute  to  cut  down  the  duration  of  the 
institute,  it  would  be  wise  to  hold  the  county  institute  for  a  period 
not  longer  than  three  days.  At  present  17  states  hold  the  institute 
less  than  five  days;  15  five  days;  4  ten  days;  7  states  it  varies  above 
ten  days,  usually  a  summer  school  type  of  institute. 

Another  added  reason  why  the  county  institute  should  be  held 
for  not  more  than  three  days  is  the  fact  that  at  present  too  much 
time  is  wasted  and  that  by  proper  program  making  at  least  40  per  cent 
of  the  time  and  expense  can  be  saved  without  decreasing  the  efficiency 
of  the  institute.  We  must  not  forget  that  American  psychology  is 
opposed  to  long  meetings;  the  point  of  saturation  is  reached  early. 
A  three  day  institute  with  dash,  enthusiasm,  and  a  well  organized 
program  will  hold  a  body  of  teachers  better.  Since  at  present 
one  day  is  literally  wasted,  improved  transportation  facilities  make 
this  waste  unnecessary. 

3.     Curtail  their  Ttme  and  Improve  Them 

It  seems  logical  to  propose  that  in  view  of  the  inefficiency  and 
wastefulness  pointed  out  in  the  study,  that  a  shorter  institute  will 
answer  the  purpose  as  well  as  the  five  day  session,  which,  really, 
means  only  four  days.  The  improvements  that  would  be  necessary 
in  the  five  day  institute  would  also  be  necessary  in  a  three  day  insti- 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  157 

tute.  In  the  present  five  day  institute  there  are  only  three  days 
devoted  to  sectional  meetings.  This  would  also  be  possible  in  the 
three  day  institute.  This  shorter  institute  will  save  school  districts 
40  per  cent  in  the  compensation  paid  teachers.  For  years  to  come 
many  teachers  who  probably  might  need  the  institute  good,  bad, 
or  indifferent,  will  attend  summer  schools;  many  teachers  from 
our  rural  schools  who  formerly  depended  on  the  institute  will  now  be 
compelled  to  attend  summer  or  normal  school  in  order  to  qualify. 
This  is  a  further  reason  for  cutting  the  number  of  days  to  three. 

4.     Make  Them  Permissive  for  Optional  Periods 

The  fourth  plan  has  all  the  virtues  of  the  present  system,  with 
none  of  the  objections.  A  strong  argument  for  the  county  institute 
has  been  its  appeal  to  the  rural  school  teacher,  in  spite  of  the  plain 
facts  revealed  in  the  study  that  the  ordinary  institute  program  has 
had  nothing  in  it  for  the  general  body  of  rural  school  teachers. 
(See  Chapter  IV — "Program.")  This  plan  would  make  the  county 
institute  permissive  in  those  counties  where  the  county  superintend- 
ent with  the  approval  of  the  Department  of  Public  Instruction 
thinks  that  it  is  necessary.  It  is  well  known  that  many  counties 
in  the  state,  where  there  are  thickly  settled  urban  communities,  and 
of  easy  access  to  many  educational  facilities,  where  the  schools 
may  be  so  organized  that  close  supervision  takes  the  place  of  the 
institute  and  other  "in  service"  training  agencies,  the  institute  can 
be  displaced  by  other  agencies.  The  length  of  time  for  holding  the 
institute  could  also  be  made  permissive,  say  two  or  three  days,  cither 
consecutively  or  on  non-consecutive  days. 

5.     -I   Possible  Fifth  Plan — Legalize  Teachers'  Associations 

No  matter  what  happens  to  the  institute,  there  should  be  in 
every  county  some  organization  that  will  make  for  professional 
solidarity  and  that  will  promote  i)rofessional  spirit.  The  assurance 
of  such  aims  would  not  require  a  three  day  meeting,  but  rather 
several  one  day  meetings  during  the  year.  The  fifth  plan  would 
legalize  county  educational  associations  so  that  teachers  would  be 
regarded  as  members  just  as  they  are  considered  as  enrolled  members 
of  the  institute.  The  State  Educational  Association  would  in  this 
way  become  a  tremendously  powerful  instrument  with  local  repre- 
sentative associations  in  every  county.  This  raises  the  question  of 
voluntary    teachers'    associations  vs.  an  association  or  organization 


158  COUNTY  teachers'  institutes  in  PENNSYLVANIA 

that  has  a  legal  basis  such  as  the  institute,  which  is  an  instrument 
in  the  hands  of  the  state.  The  legalized  teachers'  association  idea 
is  not  new.  Maine  has  county  associations  provided  by  and  sup- 
ported by  law.  No  one  can  find  objections  to  any  method  sanctioned 
by  the  State  to  compel  the  improvement  of  its  servants.  The 
passage  of  every  certification  law  is  a  similar  procedure. 

Possible  Ways  of  Improving  the  Institute 

No  matter  which  of  these  five  plans  is  followed,  unless  the  insti- 
tute is  abolished,  improvements  should  be  made.  Accordingly  a 
number  of  suggestive  proposals  are  made  for  its  possible  improve- 
ment, in  addition  to  curtailing  its  duration.     These  are: 

1.  The  state  should  adopt  an  institute  policy  whereby  the 
institute  work  of  the  state  will  be  given  unity  and  direction.  This 
does  not  mean  centralized  control  nor  a  system  of  institutes  under 
the  direction  of  conductors.  It  does  mean  that  somebody  will  be 
charged  with  the  responsibility  of  planning  the  institutes  and  of 
administering  them  thru  the  authority  and  leadership  of  the  county 
superintendent. 

2.  All  institute  programs  should  be  definitely  planned  and  sched- 
uled and  placed  in  the  hands  of  teachers  a  sufficient  time  in  advance 
of  the  institute. 

3.  The  institute  program  should  stress  new  and  controlling 
movements  in  education,  problems  of  educational  policy,  state  and 
local  and  national,  and  some  specific  school  room  problems.  The 
so-called  "inspirational"  address  should  be  reduced  to  a  proper 
number. 

4.  The  programs  should  have  unity  and  purpose  with  past 
programs,  and  if  possible,  with  future  plans. 

5.  Provisions  should  be  made  in  the  institute  for  discussions  of 
work  done  in  previous  institutes;  also  plans  laid  out  for  follow-up 
work  and  reports. 

6.  The  institute  should  encourage  more  round  table  conference 
discussions.  Teachers  should  be  encouraged  to  come  with  questions 
that  might  be  answered  by  their  fellow  workers  or  by  the  instructors. 

7.  The  institute  should  be  made  a  place  where  discussions  will  be 
fostered  and  where  reports  of  work  assigned  will  be  given. 

8.  Preliminary  arrangements  should  be  made  to  conduct 
Demonstration  classes. 


COUNTY  teachers'  IN'STITUTES  IN'  PENNSYLVANIA  159 

9.  Reports  by  teachers  on  any  constructive  piece  of  work  done 
during  the  year. 

10.  Joint  institutes  ought  to  be  organized  where  the  financial 
resources  are  not  sufficient.  Regional  institutes  with  normal  school 
areas  as  their  boundaries  might  be  organized,  at  the  same  time 
using  the  normal  school  personnel  for  instructional  purposes. 

11.  There  should  be  in  the  Department  of  Public  Instruction 
some  method  of  assisting  in  securing  instructional  talent  for  institutes. 
The  securing  of  satisfactory  talent  is  one  of  the  biggest  problems 
connected  with  the  institute. 

12.  Supervision  of  the  county  institutes  by  expert  authorities  is 
necessary.  The  state  has  never  exercised  any  such  powers  because  the 
law  does  not  require  it.  Lommen  points  out  in  the  survey  she  made 
thru  the  State  Departments  this  pertinent  reflection: 

Intelligent  and  co-operative  supervision  could  do  much  to  obviate  the  current 
criticisms  of  inadaptability  of  instruction,  failure  to  meet  local  needs,  lack  of  organiza- 
tion, and  the  absence  of  professional  growth.' 

13.  An  attempt  should  be  made  to  encourage  units  of  work  on 
the  extension  basis  thru  district  institutes,  carrying  credit  in  terms  of 
semester  hours.    This  may  also  be  feasible  in  the  county  institute. 

14.  High  school  teachers  should  be  allowed  either  to  attend 
institutes  where  strong  programs  can  be  organized  for  large  numlicrs 
of  high  school  teachers,  or  allowed  to  visit  schools.  In  many  counties 
the  number  of  high  school  teachers  is  too  small  to  offer  them  specific 
work.    This  is  also  true  of  vocational  teachers. 

15.  In  districts  where  separate  institutes  are  held,  the  teachers 
could  readily  contribute  their  institute  compensation  to  the  treasury 
as  an  adequate  fund  for  organizing  a  strong  institute. 

Many  other  changes  will  suggest  themselves  from  the  main  chapters 
of  the  study. 

*  Lommen,  op.  cit. 


Bibliography 

Alexander,  C.    Teachers'  Voluntary  Associations. 
Barnard,  Henry.    American  Journal  of  Education,  Vol.  15. 

American  Journal  of  Education,    7th  Annual  Report  Normal  Schools  and  other 
Agencies. 
>■  Bagley,  W.  C.     Report  of  Conference  on  Institutes;  Bulletin  No.  11,  University  of 
Illinois. 
Bagley,  et  al.     Professional  Preparation  of  Teachers,  etc..  Bulletin  No.  14,  Carnegie 
Foundation. 
.  Betts.     "The  County  Institute,"  Schoolmen's  Week  Proceedings,   1919,  Univ.  of 

Penna. 
.  Bock,  T.  A.     "Some  Values  of  County  Institutes,"  paper  read  before  County  Supt. 

Section,  Penna.  State  Educational  Association,  Dec.  1920. 
•  Carr.     "Ssonposium  County  Teachers'  Institutes,"  The  Educator  Journal,    Nov. 
1907. 
Cubberley,  E.  p.     History  of  Education. 

Dedd,  H.  a.     "A  Different  Kind  of  Institute,"  Penna.  School  Journal,  Feb.  1922. 
Dooylestown  Daily  Intelligencer,  Files  1855. 

DuTTON  and  Snedden.     Administration  of  Publication  in  the  U.  S.,  Rev.  Ed. 
Emerson,  H.    Twelve  Principles  of  Efficiencj^ 
Finney,  R.  L.     The  American  Public  School. 
Graves,  E.  P.     History  of  Education,  Vol.  3. 
Hood,  W.  R.     State  Laws  Relating  to  Education,  Bulletin  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education, 

No.  47,  1905;  No.  30,  1920. 
Hinsdate.     "Training  of  Teachers"  in  Butler's  Education  in  the  U.  S. 
Kentucky  Manual  of  Institutes,  1910. 
King,  L.  A.  Status  of  the  Rural  Teacher  in  Pennsylvania,  Bulletin  U.  S.  Bureau     of 

Education.      (In  Press  June  1922.) 
LoMMEN,  G.     "The  Teachers'  Institute  for  the  Training  of  Teachers  in    Serv'ice," 

Journal  of  Rural  Education,  Oct.  1921. 
McGiNNES.     "The  Instructor  and  the  Institute,"  Penna.  Journal  of  Education,  Mar. 

1911. 
Manuel.     School  and  Society,  Dec.  31,  1921. 

Mann,  Horace.    Tenth  Annual  Report,  Mass.  Board  of  Education. 
Miller.     History  of   Educational  Legislation  in   Ohio  Monograph   Universitj'  of 

Chicago. 
MiLNOR,  G.  H.     Schoolmen's  Week  Proceedings,  Univ.  of  Pa.,  1919. 
Monroe.    Cyclopedia  of  Education. 
Pennsylvania  School  Journal,  Vol.  1,  1852,  1853. 

Pennsylvania  School  Journal,  Proceedings  Penna.  State  Ed.  Assn.,  1910,  1914. 
Proceedings  of  Department  of  Superintendence,  N.E.A.,  1889,  1911. 
Proceedings  of  Penna.  State  Educational  Assn.,  1910,  1914. 
Report  of  Illinois  Commission,  1908-10. 

160 


COUNTY  teachers'  institutes  in  PENNSYLVANIA  161 

Report  of  State  Supt.  Public  Instniction,  Illinois,  1855-56. 

Report  of  Penna.  Commission  on  Rural  Schools,  Proceedings  of  Penna.  State  Educa- 
tional Assn.,  1914. 
Report  of  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  of  Penna.,  1855,  1856,  1857, 

1858,  1867,  1877,  1880,  1882,  1917,  1918. 
Report  of  U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Education,  1885. 
Report  of  Department  of  Public  Education,  New  York,  ".Agencies  Employed  in  the 

Training  of  Teachers"  1912. 
Report  of  Department  of  Public  Education,  New  York,  Bulletin,  July  15,  1908. 
RuEDiGER,  VV.  C.     Agencies  for  the  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service,  U.  S. 

Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin  No.  3,  1911. 
RuEDiGER,  W.  C.     "Spirit  of  the  Teaching  Corps,"  School  and  Society,  Jan.  26, 

1918. 
RvEDiGER,  W.  C.     "Improvement  of  Teachers,"  Schoolmen's  Week  Proceedings, 

1917,  University  of  Pennsylvania. 
Schoolmen's  Week  Proceedings,  University  of  Penna.,  1917,  1918,  1919. 
Seeru:y,  II.  C.     '"Practical  Value  of  the  Institute  System"  Educational  Review, 

Nov.  1908. 
Shaw,  R.  C.     "The  .Annual  Institute,"  Penna.  School  Journal,  Aug.  1910. 
Si^AST.     Circular  of  Information  on  Institutes,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  Circular 

No.  2,  1885. 
S>fEDDEN,    D.     "Professional    Improvement   of   Teachers   Through    Organization," 

School  and  Society,  Nov.  8,  1919. 
Updegraff,  H.     "Training  of  Teachers  in  Scr\'ice,"  Proceedings  of  the  Department  of 

Superintendence,  N.E..\.,  1911. 
U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education — Circular  of  Information  No.  2,  1885. 

Bulletin  No.  3,  1911 — .\gcncies  in  Improvement  of  Teachers. 

Bulletin  No.  47,  1915 — Relating  to  State  Laws  on  Education. 

Bulletin  No.  31,  1919— Report  on  Summer  Schools  in  1918. 

Bulletin  No.  30,  1920— State  Laws  Relating  to  Education. 

Bulletin  by  King  (In  Press  June  1922). 
WiCKERSHAM,  J.  P.     History  of  Education  in  Pennsylvania. 


A 

APPENT)IX  TO  STUDY  ON  INSTITUTE 

STUDY  ON  "THE  STATUS  OF  COUNTY  TEACHERS'  INSTITUTES" 


Conducted  under  direction  of  the  Graduate  School,  University  of  Pa. 

Please  answer  promptly  and  return  to  Cannon  Ross,  Doylestown,  Pa.,  in  stamped  envelope  enclosed. 
Thb  material  will  be  used  in  a  preliminary  report  on  Teachers'  Institutes  at  Schoolmen's  Week,  April 
10-12.  1919. 
1.     If  it  were  within  your  power  to  control  all  factors,  for  the  best  interests  of  your  schools,  check  in  blank 
spaces  which  of  the  following  times  you  would  select  for  holding  your  county  institute: 


a Before  the  opening  of  the  schools. 

b After  the  opening  of  your  schools. 

c One  week  before  opening  of  schools. 

g.  Some  other  time.    (State  it) 


d Two  weeks  before  opening  of  schools. 

e One  month  after  opening  of  schools. 

( Two  months  after  opening  of  schools. 


162                COUNTY  teachers'  institutes  in  PENNSYLVANIA 
2.     Give  reasons  for  the  time  preferred  above: 


3.  If  your  institute  is  not  held  at  time  checked  in  question  1,  please  give  reasons: 


4.  If  you  could  control  all  the  factors  determining  the  kind  of  institute  you  would  have,  check  in  blai.k 
spaces  below  one  of  the  types  you  would  select  for  the  best  interests  of  your  schools: 

a General  Sections  or  Sessions — all  teachers  meeting  together  all  the  time. 

b Half  General  and  Half  Sectional — one  half-day  all  teachers  meeting  together,  one-half  day 

teachers  meeting  in  two  or  more  groups  or  sections. 

c All  Departmental — all  teachers  meeting  in  small  groups,  both  morning  and  afternoon,  i.e.,  no 

General  Sessions  at  all. 

d Any  Other  Kind.    (Please  indicate  and  describe  definitely) 


5.    Give  reasons  for  the  form  of  organization  checked  in  question  above: 


6.     Check  in  blank  space  the  form  of  organization  mentioned  in  question  4  which  you  have: 

a. General  Sessions  I         c All  Departmental. 

b Half  General  and  Half  Sectional  ]  |        d Any  other  kind — indicate 


7.    a.  Give  reasons  for  your  present  form  of  organization: 


b.  Do  you  consider  your  present  plan  satisfactory? 

8.    a.  How  many  evening  sessions  do  you  have? b.  Why  do  you  favor  or  oppose  evening  sessions? 

c.  Are  your  teachers  in  favor  of  evening  sessions? d.    The  Public 


9.     Check  in  blank  spaces  ALL  the  methods  used  in  your  county  in  making  up  the  institute  program: 


a Co.  Supt.  alone. 

b Co.  Supt.  and  committee  of  princi- 

cipals. 

c Co.  Supt.  and  committee  of  prin.  and 

teachers. 

d Co.  Supt.  and  committee  of  directors. 

e Co.  Supt.  and  approved  by  executive 

committee. 

i.  If  so,  in  what  way? 


f Any  other  method.     (Please  describe 

definitely) 


g.  Who  makes  out  the  program  of  departmen- 
tal meetings? 


h.  Are  rural  teachers  ever  consulted  in  form- 
ing the  program? 


10.     Check  any  of  the  following  methods  of  instruction  employed  in  your  institute: 

a Lecture  Method  alone  in  general  sessions. 

b Lecture  Method  alone  in  departmental  sessions. 

c Demonstration  Lessons  in  general  sessions. 

d Demonstration  Lessons  in  departmental  sessions. 

e Lecture  and  Discussions  in  general  sessions. 

f Lecture  and  Discussions  in  departmental  sessions. 

g Any  other  method  of  instruction.    (Please  describe  definitely) 


U.  Instructors  used  and  their  relative  merits: 

In  left  colunm  check  those  used.         In  right  hand  column  use  numerals  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  for  rank. 


COUNTY  TEACHERS    INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSVLVAMA 


163 


a. 

Professional  institute  lecturers. 

b. 

Public  Men. 

c. 

Normal  School  Teachers. 

d. 

Public  School  Men  not  from  your  own  county. 

e. 

Successful  Teachers  in  Your  Own  County — Town. 

f. 

Successful  Teachers  in  Your  0«ti  County — Rural. 

e- 

College  Teachers  of  Education. 

b. 

Business  Men. 

i. 

Any  other  (Name) 



12.    a.  Does  your  institute  make  special  provisions  for  the  inexperienced  teacher? If  so,  state  in 

what  way: 


b.  Special  provision  for  Grade  Teachers? If  so,  state  in  what  way : . . . . 

c.  Special  provision  for  the  rural  one  room  teacher? If  so,  in  what  way? . 


d.  Special  provision  for  high  school  teachers? If  so,  in  what  way? . 


13.  Do  you  think  that  the  town  or  borough  teachers  who  have  local  supervision,  could  do  without  the 

institute? Give  reason  for  answer: 

14.  Give  rank  to  five  of  the  following  possible  ways  in  which  the  institute  may  help  teachers.     (Use 

numerals  1,  2,  3,  4,  5  for  highest  value,  next  to  the  highest,  etc.,  respectively.) 


a Knowledge  of  subject  matter 

b Methods  of  teaching 

c Professional  inspiration 

d lictter  discipline  in  rural  schools 

e Wider  professional  reading  by  teach- 
ers 


f Social  contacts  for  teachers 

g Exchange  of  experiences  and   ideas 

among  teachers 

h Means    of    community    uplift    thru 

teachers 

i Discussion  of  immediate  school  prob- 
lems 

j Opiwrtunity  for  supt.  to  meet  teach- 
ers for  conferences  on  school  problems 

15.  To  what  degree  do  you  and  your  assistants  notice  improvement  among  your  teachers  after  the  county 

institute?    (Check  which  degree  in  blank  spaces  to  the  left.) 
a None:  b Little:  c Medium.  d Much. 

16.  Which  of  the  following  in  your  opinion  has  the  greater  value  for  teachers?     (Check  which  one  in 

blank  space  to  the  left.) 
a County   Institute,     b Local   Institute,     c Other  Educational    Meetings 

during  year, 
b Conferences  with  groups  of  teachers  either  liefore  the  ojiening  of  school  or  after. 

17.  Should  the  institute  be  held  for  more  than  five  (5)  consecutive  days? Please  give  reason 

for  either  answer: 


18.  Check  whether  or  not  you  prefer  holding  the  county  institute  as  now  on  five  consecutive  days? 
a.  Yes ;  b.  No ;  c.  Reason  for  either  answer: 


164  COUNTY  teachers'  institutes  in  PENNSYLVANIA 

19.    a.  If  your  county  has  held  its  institute  this  school  year  on  5  Saturdays,  or  on  five  non-consecutiv» 
days,  state  the  advantages  or  disadvantages  of  the  plan: 


b.  What  per  ct.  of  teachers  have  attended  on  Saturdays? 

c.  Are  transportation  facilities  in  your  county  to  place  of  meeting  very  good,  good,  or  poor? . 
20.     a.  Is  there  any  reason  why  county  institutes  as  at  present  conducted  should  be  abolished? . 

b.  If  there  is,  indicate  reasons: 


21.     If  in  favor  of  abolishing  the  institute  as  at  present  conducted,  what  would  you  suggest  as  a  good  sub- 
stitute, if  any? 


22.  If  it  were  legally,  financially,  and  otherwise  possible,  would  you  substitute  summer  session  work  for 

teachers  in  Normal  School  or  College  for  the  institute? 

23.  a.  EnroDment  fee  in  your  institute b.  Extra  fee,  if  any,  for  evening  course  tickets 

24.  What  do  you  regard  as  the  aim  or  purpose  of  institutes  as  at  present  organized  and  held? 


Questionnaire  filled  out  by Supt County 

(On  back  page  give  any  suggestion,  problem  or  peculiar  form  of  organization  you  have  in  your  institute) 


STATUS  OF  TEACHERS'  INSTITUTES 

(Please  do  not  fill  out  until  questions  are  explained) 


1 .  Teacher,  principal  or  supt.? Are  you  a  city,  town,  or  rural  t eacher? 

2.  Number  of  institutes  attended  before  this? Teacher's  certificate  held 

3.  Check  in  blank  space  time  preferred  for  holding  institutes: 

a Before  opening  of  schools.  1 1         c.  How  many  weeks  before? 

b After  opening  of  schools.  1 1        d.  How  many  weeks  after? 

4.  Reason  for  time  preferred: 

5.  Check  in  blank  space  type  of  institute  preferred: 

a General  sessions,  only.         II         b Half  general  sessions,  half  sectional.         I| 

c All  sectional  meetings. 

6.  Check  in  blank  space  method  of  instruction  preferred:  (1  for  first  choice,  2  for  second,  3  for  third.) 
a Lecture  method.  ||  b Demonstration  method.  ||  c Conferences  and  dis  • 

cussions. 
d Any  other  method.     (Please  indicate): 

7.  Check  in  blank  spaces  three  kinds  of  instructors  preferred,  using  numeral  1  for  first  choice,  2  for  second 

3  for  third: 

a Public  men.  I  c College  teachers.  I  e Professional  lecturers. 

b Practical  school  men.  [|  d Normal  school  teachers||  f Successful  local  teachers. 

8.  Do  you  favor  evening  sessions? If  so,  how  many  of  each  of  the  following? 

a Serious  lectures.  b Light  lectures.  c Entertainments. 

9.  Check  in  blank  spaces  the  three  most  valuable  contributions  to  the  teacher  actually  made  by  the  in- 

stitute, using  numeral  1  for  first  most  valuable  contribution,  2  for  second,  3  for  third. 
(If  there  is  no  contribution,  mark  with  X  here: No  contribution.) 


a Knowledge  subject  matter. 

b Methods  of  teaching. 

c Professional  inspiration. 

d Conference  with  County  Superinten 

dent. 


e Exchange  of  ideas  among  teachers. 

f Discussion  of  immediate  school  prob- 
lems. 

g Social  contacts  for  teachers. 

h (Name  any  other  and  give  value): 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  165 

10.     Mark  in  blank  space  which  of  the  followinR  you  prefer,  if  a  choice  on  your  part  were  possible;  {Be  sure 
to  answer  this.)    (Use  I  for  first  choice,  2  for  second,  3  for  third.) 

a Institutes  as  at  present  generally  organized  and  conducted. 

b Two  or  three  day  educational  meelinKs  held  in  the  county  or  in  the  district,  that  stress  big 

educational  movements,  and  make  for  professional  spirit. 

c Well  organized  system  of  local  institutes,  financed  by  school  boards. 

d Summer  School  sessions,  four  to  six  weeks,  tuition  free,  attendance  voluntary,  but  credit 

given  toward  advancement 
e.  Give  any  other  p>refcrcnce  or  suggestion: 
It.     Mark  1  for  first  choice,  2  for  second,  of  type  of  instruction  material  preferred  in  day  sessions: 

•  ....Pedagogical.  ||  b.  ..  .Inspirational.  ||  c. ..  .Entertainment.  ||  d. ..  .Informational. 
12.     Mark  I  for  what  you  think  should  be  the  most  valuable  feature  of  the  institute,  2  for  second.  3  for 
third: 


a Methods  of  teaching. 

b Development  of  professional  spirit, 

c Knowledge  of  subject  matter. 


d Exchange  of  ideas  among  teachers. 

e Social  contacts  "  " 

f Explanation   of   new   movements   in 

education. 

g Discussion  of  immediate  school  problems. 

(Study  conducted  by  Carmon  Ross,  Doylcstown,  Pa.) 

C— Part   1 
STATUS  OF  TE.\CHERS'  INSTITUTES— SPECIFIC  QUESTIONS 

Queslionoaire  for  City  and  DisU  Supts.  and  Supv.  Principals. 

1.  Check  in  blank  spaces  your  judgment  as  to  the  DEGREE  that  the  Institute  really  functions  as  an 

AGENCY  to  IMPROVE  teachers  in  service, 
a Much  b Little  c None 

2.  If  you  think  that  it  really  functions  as  an  agency  in  the  improvement  of  teachers  in  service,  please 

check  in  blank  spaces  in  which  of  the  following  ways  your  teachers  have  shown  improvement 
after  the  annual  institute: 

a Methods  of  teaching  d Professional  spirit 

b Methods  of  discipline  e Interest  in  school  work 

c Knowledge  of  subject  matter  f Impetus  for  prof,  reading. 

g Understanding  new  movements  in  education 

Plemac  mention  other  ways  not  suggested  above  in  which  improvement  has  been  shown  by  your  teachers: 

i.     If  it  were  in  every  way  pos.sibIe  and  within  your  power,  would  you  employ  or  prefer  to  employ  the 

money  now  being  s(>ent  by  your  district  to  pay  teachers'  attendance  at  the  Institute  for  other 

school  purposes  instead  of  attendance  at  Institutes? 

(Please  answer  YES  or  NO)  Answer 

4.  If  you  should  prefer  to  employ  the  equivalent  Institute  money  for  other  school  purposes  in  your  own 

system,  please  check  in  which  of  the  two  following  ways  you  would  s|)cnd  this  money.     Use 

numeral  t  fur  first  choice,  2  for  second: 

a Closer  supervision. 

b Additional  teacher  or  teachers  either  for  regular  or  special  subjects. 

c Better  salaries  for  some  or  all  teachers. 

d Better  library  facilities  for  teachers  and  pupils. 

e Sending  descr^'ing  teachers  to  summer  school  by  p.iying  all  or  part  of  expenses. 

f Paying  expenses  to  selected  teachers  for  observing  work  in  other  schools. 

g Securing  experienced  and  successful  e<lucators  to  address  teachers  on  specific  problems. 

h Please  mention  other  purixjses  for  which  you  would  employ  this  money  in  the  improvement 

of  teachers  in  service: 


C— Part  2 

5.     Mark  1  for  what  you  think  should  be  the  most  valuable  feature  of  the  Institute,  2  for  second,  3  for 
third: 


166  COUNTY  teachers'  institutes  in  PENNSYLVANIA 

a Methods  of  teaching  d . . . .  Exchange  of  ideas  among  teachers. 

b Development  of  Professional  spirit  e Social  contacts  among  teachers. 

c Knowledge  of  subject  matter  f . . .  .Explanation  of  new  movements  in  educa- 

g Discussion  of  specific  school  problems  tion. 

Please  mention  any  other  feature  that  should  be  emphasized: 

6.  Mark  1  for  first  choice,  2  for  second,  of  type  of  instruction  preferred  in  day  sessions: 

a Pedagogical  b Inspirational  c Informational 

7.  Check  in  blank  spaces  kinds  of  instructors  preferred,  using  1  for  first  choice,  2  for  second,  3  for  third: 
a Public   men.         b Practical   school   men.         c College   teachers. 

d Normal    School    Teachers.         e Professional    lecturers.         f Successful 

local  teachers. 

8.  Name  three  of  the  following  agencies  which  you  think  will  improve  teachers  in  service  most,  marking 

1  for  first  choice,  2  for  second,  and  3  for  third. 

a Summer  school  for  4  or  6  weeks. 

b Professional  reading. 

c Additional  or  closer  supervision. 

d Correspondence  Courses. 

e Teachers'  Associations  or  conventions. 

f Demonstration  Classes  either  in  own  system  or  elsewhere. 

g Helping  teachers  for  rural  schools. 

h Visiting  other  schools  for  observation  purposes. 

i County  or  City  Institutes. 

j Local  Institutes. 

k . .  . .  Two  or  three  day  educational  meetings  that  stress  big  movements  in  education  and  make  for 

professional  spirit. 
Name  of  District No.  Teachers 

D 

STATE  STATUS  OF  TEACHERS'  INSTITUTES 

State Answered  by 


1.  Are  Teachers'  Institutes  still  held  in  your  state? 

2.  If  not,  when  were  they  discontinued?    (County) 

3.  Does  your  state  also  have  a  system  of  local  or  township  institutes? 

4.  What  area  do  your  "County"  Institutes  cover— one  county,  several  counties,  or  part  of  a  county?. . 

5.  Does  the  law  specify  the  time  of  holding  the  institute? 

6.  Who  determines  the  time,  if  not  specified  by  law? 

7.  When  are  the  institutes  usually  held? 

8.  How  many  days  do  the  institutes  continue? 

9.  Must  the  institute  be  held  on  consecutive  days? 

10.  May  it  be  held  on  non-consecutive  days? 

11.  How  many  institutes  a  year  are  held  in  a  county  or  legal  area? 

12.  State  which  group  of  teachers,  if  any,  may  be  excused  from  attending  the  institutes: 

13.  Is  attendance  on  the  part  of  the  teachers  compulsory? 

14.  Are  teachers  paid  for  attending? How  much? 

Who  pays  them? 

15.  Is  there  a  penalty  for  non-attendance? If  so,  what? 

16.  Please  check  in  blank  spaces  to  left  which  method  or  methods  is  used  to  finance  institutes: 

a State  Aid;  how  much? ;  b County  Aid;  how  much? 

;  c Fees  by  teachers;  how  much? 

17.  Should  the  State  aid  summer  schools  rather  than  Institutes? 

18.  Should  the  State  aid  Institutes  in  addition  to  the  summer  schools? 

19.  To  which  of  the  following  should  Institutes  confine  themselves:  a Methods  of  Teaching; 

b "Inspirational  Lectures";  c Discussion  of  immediate  school  problems;  d 

Rural  Schools. 

20.  Do  you  personally  think  that  the  need  still  exists  today  for  conducting  County  Institutes? 

21.  Should  they  be  abolished? 

On  the  reverse  side  of  this  page,  please  state  what  you  consider  as  the  present  function  of  County 

Institutes. 


COUNTY  teachers'  INSTITUTES  IN  PENNSYLVANIA  167 

E 

INQUIRY  ABOUT  COUNTY  TEACHERS'  INSTITUTES— TO  PROMINENT 

EDUCATORS 

1.  a.  In  your  experience  with  County  Teachers'  Institutes,  have  you  found  that  they  actually  contribute 

to  the  professional  training  of  teachers? 

b.     If  so,  in  what  ways?: 

2.  Do  you  think  that  there  is  still  a  good  reason  why  the  five  (S)  day  County  Institute  should  be  con- 
tinued?   

3.  Please  give  briefly  your  reason  why  the  Institute  should  be  continued  or  discontinued? 

4.  a.  In  view  of  the  program  in  this  state  that  teachers  after  1927  must  have  higher  professional  attain- 
ments, do  you  think  that  the  money  spent  on  County  Instiliiles  in  Pa.  (at  least  $750,000  annually), 

might  be  spent  for  more  cflective  teacher  training  purposes? 

b.  If  so,  in  what  way  or  ways? 

5.  What,  in  your  opinion,  should  be  the  highest  aim  or  function  of  the  County  Institute?     (Rriefly, 
please.) 

6.  Further  suggestions  or  remarks: 


Answered  by 

(Use  other  side  if  necessary) 


STATUS  OF  TEACHERS'  INSTITUTES— FOR  TEACHERS 

(Follow-up — Two  Months  After) 

1.  Personal  information: 

a.  Prin.,  Supv.  Prin.,  or  Supt b.  Town  or  country 

c.  Grade  or  high  school  teacher d.  Years  experience 

e.  Grade*!  or  ungraded  school 

2.  In  which  of  the  following  ways  was  the  last  County  Institute  valuable?    (Use  numbers  1,  2,  3,  4,  5, 

6,  7  to  show  order  of  values.) 

a.  Social  contacts b.  Methods  of  teaching 

c  Methods  of  school  management d.  Information  getting 

e.  Recreation f.  Inspiration g.  Any  other 

way  (Name  it.) 

3.  Direct  values  of  the  last  County  Institute: 

a.  Errors  it  has  helped  you  to  correct: 

b.  New  methods  it  has  given  you  in  teaching: 

c.  Impetus  given  to  you  to  study  or  read: 

Professional  books — name  them : 

Kon-Proicssional  books — name  them: 

Professional  magazines — name  them: 

d.  Devices,  schemes,  influences,  etc.,  that  Institute  has  contributed  for  improving  your  school  work: 

4.  State  definitely  bow  the  last  County  Institute  has  interested  you  in  any  of  the  following  activities: 

a.  Use  of  school  house  for  conununity   purposes: 

b.  Children's  health: 

c.  Co-operation  with  the  home: 

d.  Changes  or  improvements  in  course  of  study: 

e.  Community  identification  by  yourself: 


168  COUNTY  teachers'  institutes  in  PENNSYLVANIA 

5.  If  last  Institute  was  INSPIRING,  state  in  what  respects  or  in  what  way  it  was  INSPIRING: 

a 

b 

c 

6.  Do  you  think  that  your  school  work  has  improved  appreciably  since  the  last  County  Institute? . 


If  it  has,  state  briefly  in  what  way  or  ways  it  has  improved 

Do  you  feel  the  need  for  instruction  in  the  institute  for  teaching  special  subjects? 

a.  If  so,  in  what  subject  or  subjects? 

b.  Suggest  methods  for  giving  such  instruction 

c.  Would  you  attend  such  classes  if  they  were  free  and  optional? 

d.  Would  you  attend  if  held  before  or  after  the  regular  sessions  of  the  Institute? 

Did  you  stay  in during  the  week  of  the  Institute?. 


UNIVERSITY   OF   CALITORNIA   LIBEAEY, 
BERKELEY 

THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 

STAMPED   BELOW 

Books  not  returned  on  time  are  subject  to  a  fine  of 
50c  per  volume  after  the  third  day  overdue,  increasing 
to  $1.00  per  volume  after  the  sixth  day.  Books  not  in 
demand  may  be  renewed  if  application  is  made  before 
expiration   of  loan  period. 


aUL  IE  \^^ 


otev 


©    £)M 


50j»i-7,'29 


50u;5*^S 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CAUFORNIA  LIBRARY 


«» 


■*    5l| 


.ilill 


